Cluster Site Designation of the Southwest National Wildlife Refuge Complex as Wetlands of International Importance under the Criteria of The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat-Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971).
Abstract
The Ramsar Convention of 1971 is an international treaty seeking to protect, conserve and assist in the planning and management as well as wise use of the world's wetlands. Designation of Louisiana’s diverse wetland areas, specifically a cluster of National Wildlife Refuges in Southwestern Louisiana ensures a complete approach to conservation management principles that seek to protect our valuable wetland coastal habitats from natural and synthetic threats.
The loss of Louisiana wetlands, to coastal erosion, global sea rise and historical development is a major environmental concern for the United States. These wetlands are home to endangered and threatened animal and plant species as well as habitat to thousands of migratory birds, waterfowl, fish, reptiles, mollusks and mammals. The science, academic, volunteer, political and legislative communities of the United States are working to conserve the Louisiana wetlands through a multitude of studies, projects and programs aimed at preserving, protecting, restoring as well as recognizing the value of wetlands.
The Coastal Zone of Louisiana has of diverse wetlands, including freshwater swamps, hardwood and bottomland swamps, freshwater marshes, brackish marshes and saltwater marshes that are home to valuable natural resources, some of which are threatened by coastal erosion. Ramsar encourages listing of diverse wetland sites and in fact permits clustering of diverse sites for a single listing as a wetland of international importance.
National Wildlife Refuges on the coast of Louisiana are recognized and in fact protected under current law as ecosystems of importance to the country. The Southwest Louisiana National Wildlife Refuge Complex is an established public conservation entity comprised of Cameron Prairie NWR, Sabine NWR, and Lacassine NWR. The Ramsar Convention outlines specific criteria for potential candidate wetland sites to meet for listing to the roster of Wetlands of International Importance and supports clustering of wetland sites.
The Ramsar Information Sheet (RIS) lists the characteristics of sites and the science that justifies any statements made regarding the qualities of the nominated wetland sites. Administrative planning and management approaches toward nominated sites are included in the RIS. The RIS provides a standardized format or data sheet for recording information about the region. Data and information collected on hydrological, biophysical, floral, faunal, social and cultural functions and values are critical elements that determine eligibility for Ramsar listing.
The Federal government as well as the Louisiana state government supports international wetland designation and are in fact established participants in the Ramsar Convention. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers the Ramsar Convention and recently announced new U.S. sites for inclusion on the listing of Wetlands of International Importance. Louisiana hosts a Ramsar site at Catahoula Lake in Rapides Parish. This site is an inland wetland, a National Wildlife Refuge and member of Ramsar since 1991. The Louisiana Coastal Authority has recently produced a report outlining the national and international importance of the Louisiana Coastal Wetlands to the global economy and security of the world.
The Ramsar Convention of 1971 should be applied to Louisiana wetlands, specifically the wetlands of the coastal zone, which represent some of the world's more diverse wetland areas. The National Wildlife Refuges established on the Louisiana Coast offer federal and state parties an opportunity to enlist Ramsar international recognition and support in the complete planning and management effort of Louisiana's wetlands. Wildlife habitat, as well as economic development and conservation of the wetland's natural resources will be protected and recognized through designation of the Louisiana Southwest National Wildlife Refuge Complex as Wetlands of International Importance.
The Ramsar Convention of 1971 and the criteria of the treaty for determining “Wetlands of International Importance” should be used to designate the Louisiana Coastal Zone Wetlands, in particular, Cameron Prairie, Lacassine, and Sabine National Wildlife Refuges as a cluster site of “Wetlands of International Importance”.
Introduction
Wetlands as a part of global ecosystem
Propose International designation of Louisiana wetlands
Situational discussion of wetland global and local status
Management programs addressing wetland habitat issues
International expansion of wetland protection programs through Ramsar
Literature Review
Wetlands
World View
“Wetlands occupy about 6 percent of the land surface of the world, or approximately 890 million hectares (approximately 2.2 billion acres). The United States contains about 111 million hectares (about 274 million acres) or approximately 12 percent of the world's wetlands.”
The concept of wetlands is often difficult to comprehend, much less define. “This is a term of no great precision, either in popular or scientific parlance, and indeed in certain languages there is no single word which adequately reflects the concept.” “Certainly the rendering in the French language text - ‘zones humides’ - conjures up a rather different image from its English counterpart. Since, however, the primary aim of those who drafted the Convention was to establish a conservation regime for all those habitats which were of importance to waterfowl, the definition adopted was one wide enough to embrace virtually every practical possibility, without particular regard to scientific nicety. Article 1(1) accordingly states: ‘For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.’ Author, P.J. Dugan, suggests in a Wetland Conservation: a Review of Current Issues and Required Action that of over fifty separate definitions of wetlands currently in use, this is the broadest:
Encompassing ‘habitats as diverse as mangrove swamps, peat bogs, water meadows, coastal beaches, coastal waters, tidal flats, mountain lakes and tropical river systems’.
“The Canadian Government says, Wetlands are submerged or permeated by water – either permanently or temporarily – and are characterized by plants adapted to saturated soil conditions. Wetlands include fresh and salt water marshes, wooded swamps, bogs, seasonally flooded forest, sloughs – any land area that can keep water long enough to let wetland plants and soils develop.”
The definition expands in Article 2(1) of Ramsar, which provides in part:
‘The boundaries of each wetland shall be precisely described and also delimited on a map and they may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands and bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands, especially where these have importance as waterfowl habitat.’
The Director-General of IUCN, delivering the keynote address at the Fourth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Montreux, Switzerland , joked that this very broad definition: ‘suggests to me that only two Conventions are really needed to cover the conservation of all the habitats in the world - the Ramsar Convention dealing with any land that can be generally termed wet, and a Drylands Convention dealing with everything else,’ ”.
Wetlands cover 6% of the earth's surface but account for 24% of global productivity.
“The limited federal definition of a wetland does not comply with Ramsar’s wise use obligation because it fails to protect the integrity of the wetland ecosystem.”
U.S.
“1890 wetland definition. One of the earliest wetland definitions used in the United States comes from an 1890 federal government report on wetlands "General Account of the Freshwater Morasses of the United States" (Nathaniel Shaler): "all wetlands...in which the natural declivity is insufficient, when the forest cover is removed, to reduce the soil to the measure of dryness necessary for agriculture. Wherever any form of engineering is necessary to secure this desiccation, the area is classified as swamp." Therefore, for a long time, wetlands have been recognized as areas that are too wet to farm or too wet to build upon without draining or filling. Presently, there are two definitions in wide use in the United States. One is the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's definition used for conducting the National Wetlands Inventory, a government program that is mapping wetlands across the country. The other is the federal regulatory wetland definition used to identify wetlands subject to federal regulations under the Clean Water Act.”
“In the late 1970’s wetland science emerged as a separate field of study, and better information concerning the importance of wetlands was made available to the public. As a result of the heightened awareness of wetland values, attitudes began to change; laws such as Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of 1972 (revised 1975), which regulates the dumping of solids into wetlands and waterways, and the 1985 Swampbuster provisions of the Flood Securities Act were passed to protect and preserve wetlands; public and private programs were developed to restore wetlands; and wetland losses began to decrease. In 1988, recommendations were made by the National Wetlands Policy Forum for a program of “no net loss of wetlands”, with stronger wetland protection policies but also recognition that some wetlands will inevitably be destroyed by development. Under this program, lost acreage and function may be recovered by the creation of new wetlands and the restoration of degraded wetlands.”
“Wetlands are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in the soil and on its surface.”
“The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE or Corps) used the following regulatory definition of wetlands for developing a field method for determining the jurisdictional boundaries for regulatory purposes. The Corps definition utilizes the "three-parameter test" for permitting and planning purposes.
The Corp uses these three parameters
1. hydrophytic vegetation,
2. hydric soils
3. Wetland hydrology.
Under this definition an area is considered a wetland only if all three conditions are present.
The Corps definition states:
The term wetlands means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface water or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas. (33 CFR 328.3(b); 40 CFR 230.3(t).
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service defines wetlands in a different manner.
This definition states:
“Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and an aquatic system where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For purposes of this classification, wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports hydrophytes, (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and (3) the substrate is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each year." (Cowardin, 1979)
The USFWS definition includes, swamps; freshwater, brackish water, and saltwater marshes; bogs; vernal pools, periodically inundated saltflats; intertidal mudflats; wet meadows; wet pastures; springs and seeps; portions of lakes, ponds, rivers and streams; and all other areas which are periodically or permanently covered by shallow water, or dominated by hydrophytic vegetation, or in which the soils are predominantly hydric in nature.
In general, we talk of two broad categories of wetlands: (a) Coastal Wetlands and (b) Inland Wetlands. Coastal Wetlands are found along the oceans and closely linked to estuaries where seawater and freshwater mix. Grasses, sedges, and rushes that are salt tolerant take advantage of nutrients flowing into their environment once or twice daily (tides) resulting in tidal salt marshes that are exceptionally high in total production of organic matter.
Inland Wetlands are found on floodplains along rivers & streams (riparian wetlands), in depressions surrounded by dry land. For example, potholes, basins, swamps, bayous and along margins of lakes and ponds, and any other low-lying area where groundwater intercepts the soil surface. Inland wetlands include marshes and wet meadows dominated by herbaceous plants and swamps dominated by shrubs and trees.”
NOAA defines coastal wetlands as all wetlands in coastal watersheds, i.e., watersheds that drain to the ocean or to an estuary or bay.
Cowardin recognizes the following five major wetland classifications:
1. marine
2. estuarine
3. lacustrine
4. riverine
5. palustrine
Marine and estuarine wetlands are associated with the ocean and include coastal wetlands, such as tidal marshes. Lacustrine wetlands are associated with lakes, while riverine wetlands are found along rivers and streams. Palustrine wetlands may be isolated or connected wet areas and include marshes, swamps, and bogs”.
“Wetlands, as the term might suggest, are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface all year or at least for substantial parts of the year, especially during the growing season. Some of our most valuable and productive wetlands are only seasonally wet. Wetlands are an important link between the land and water and are as productive as are rain forests and coral reef ecosystems. Water saturation (hydrology) largely determines how the soil develops and the types of plant and animal communities living in and on the soil. Wetlands may support both aquatic and terrestrial species. Generally, the prolonged presence of water creates conditions favoring specially adapted plants (hydrophytes). Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local difference in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, existing vegetation, and other factors, especially human disturbance.
“Wetlands vary widely because of regional and local differences in soils, topography, climate, hydrology, water chemistry, vegetation, and other factors, including human disturbance. Indeed, wetlands are found from the tundra to the tropics and on every continent except Antarctica. For regulatory purposes under the Clean Water Act, the term wetlands means ‘those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas.’ ”
“From a national perspective, the degradation or destruction of special aquatic sites, such as filling operations in wetlands, is considered to be among the most severe environmental impacts. The guiding principle should be that degradation or destruction of special sites may represent an irreversible loss of valuable aquatic resources.”
Value of Wetlands
It is estimated that 220 million acres of wetlands existed in the coterminous U.S. (lower 48 states) in colonial times. Today, less than half remain (about 100 million acres). Roughly, 5% of the lower 48 states contain wetlands. Alaska alone possesses over 200 million acres, more than twice the acreage of all other states combined.
States with more than 20% of their land area represented by wetlands are Alaska (48%), Louisiana (36%), Florida (33%), Maine (26%), Minnesota (21%), and South Carolina (21%). Those with 10-20% of their land mass in wetlands are New Jersey (19%), Delaware (18%), Georgia (18%), North Carolina (16%), Wisconsin (15%), Michigan (15%), Mississippi (14%), Massachusetts (12%), and Arkansas (10%). States with less than 1% of their territory occupied by wetlands are Montana (0.9%), Arizona (0.8%), Kansas (0.8%), Idaho (0.7%), Nevada (0.6%), New Mexico (0.6%), California (0.5%), and West Virginia (0.4%).
From the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s, the coterminous U.S. lost an average of 458,000 acres of wetland per year. Between the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, the loss rate drop to about 290,000 acres/year.
Today, the annual loss rate is about 60,000 acres. The dramatic decline in wetland losses is attributed to wetland regulations (federal and state), to improvements in land use policies (discourage wetland filling), and more recently, to government-sponsored wetland restoration projects (to increase wetland acreage by either bringing hydrology back to formerly drained wetlands or by improving the functions of previously altered wetlands).
Although wetlands are receiving better protection today than in the past, wetland losses continue. The largest losses in the U.S. are probably taking place in the Southeast (states including Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi). Most of these states are losing forested wetlands to agriculture, yet recent agricultural policies may be reducing this type of wetland conversion.
Louisiana is losing coastal wetlands to submergence--estimated at 50 square miles per year. The factors causing subsidence of Louisiana's coastal plain are complicated (sea level rise and salt water intrusion up estuaries, oil drilling, construction of navigation canals, diking of coastal marshes, levee construction, groundwater extraction, and diversion of the Mississippi River).”
“Wetland functions can achieve lower flood peaks, fewer drought periods, more wildlife and habitat, and better surface water quality than comparable watersheds with fewer wetlands. Wetlands also provide recreational opportunities for boating, hiking and bird watching, and aesthetic value in the landscape. Tidal wetlands are valued for marine food production; wildlife habitat; flood, hurricane, and storm control; recreation; cleansing of ecosystems; absorption of silt and organic material; education and research opportunities; and aesthetic values. Areas adjacent to tidal wetlands often carry many of the same or similar valuable attributes and, in addition, provide a valuable buffer for the wetlands.”
Additionally, “The mere existence of wetlands may be of great significance to some people. Those who have grown up in wetlands, but have moved away to a town, may have placed a high value on the wetland because it is part of their cultural heritage, even though they may never visit the wetland.”
Management of Wetlands
U.S.
“On the federal level the US ACOE (COE) administers laws and regulations, with oversight by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).The US ACOE also coordinate its regulatory processes with the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).
The COE regulates waters and wetlands under two laws. The first law, which is quite old (1800’s), is the Section 10 Rivers and Harbors Act. Under this regulation, a permit is required from the COE for any project that involves work or structures in, over or under navigable waters of the United States.
The second, more recent law is Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Under this law, a permit is needed from the COE for the discharges of dredged or fill material into any water of the United States, including wetlands, which are a type of water of the United States. Wetlands are identified in the field using the COE delineation manual.”
“EPA has a number of programs for wetland conservation, restoration, and monitoring. EPA, along with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), establishes environmental standards for reviewing permits for discharges that affect wetlands, such as residential development, roads, and levees. Under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, the Corps issues permits that meet environmental standards (after allowing the public to comment).
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1996
“In recognition of the increasing pressures of over-development upon the nation's coastal resources, Congress enacted the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) in 1972. The CZMA encourages states to preserve, protect, develop, and, where possible, restore or enhance valuable natural coastal resources such as wetlands, floodplains, estuaries, beaches, dunes, barrier islands, and coral reefs, as well as the fish and wildlife using those habitats. A unique feature of the CZMA is that participation by states is voluntary. To encourage states to participate, the act makes federal financial assistance available to any coastal state or territory, including those on the Great Lakes, that is willing to develop and implement a comprehensive coastal management program.
The Secretary of Commerce (SOC) delegated the administration of the CZMA to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM) administers individual state programs. Currently, OCRM oversees programs in all coastal states except Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Texas, and Ohio. With the exception of Indiana and Illinois, these non-participating states are currently developing coastal programs. In addition to resource protection, the CZMA specifies that coastal states may manage coastal development. A state with an OCRM-approved program can deny or restrict any development that is inconsistent with its coastal zone management program. This specification affects current DOE development activities, and may influence ongoing DOE activities. The CZMA does not apply to states that are not CZMA participants or have not yet received OCRM approval.”
International Management of Wetlands
“By 1991 over 60 countries had joined the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, adopted in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971 (enforced since 1975) and known as the Ramsar Convention. Member countries are required to designate at least one wetland as a conservation project to add to the List of Wetlands of International Importance. The Ramsar List includes more than 30 million hectares (74 million acres) of wetlands in more than 500 locations—still only 3 percent of the total wetland area of the world. Twenty of these sites are considered to be seriously at risk, and many have no management program.”
“The United States has an obligation under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) to promote the protection of wetland habitats within its borders.”
“Wetlands are dynamic areas, open to influence from natural and human factors. In order to maintain their biological diversity and productivity (i.e., their ‘ecological character’ as defined by the Convention and to permit the wise use of their resources by people, an overall agreement is essential between the various managers, owners, occupiers and other stakeholders. The management planning process provides the mechanism to achieve this agreement.”
“Considering the broad scope of problems/issues and diverse interests among governments, international organizations, and private sector groups, a body or structure must encourage the major actors, as well as the interested and affected parties, to agree to work toward goals that go beyond narrow national interests to pursue larger, international or global benefits. Some basic consensus is critical to progress in international negotiations and to encourage individual government actions, particularly where differences are substantial.
Governments enter into international environmental agreements, treaties, and protocols for actions at home and overseas. These intergovernmental agreements are bilateral and multilateral, with the latter often-requiring broad acceptance to be effective.
Examples:
1. Montreal Protocol: to reduce and terminate the consumption of chemical compounds which destroy ozone in the stratosphere.
2. Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES).
3. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: to protect wetlands of international significance.
4. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal.
Governments are driven by incentives rather than penalties. Incentives in the form of financial assistance and technology transfer are most commonly called for to aid countries to acquire the capacity to respond to international environmental threats and their global environmental responsibilities.
Examples:
1. Loans and grants from international organizations: Lending by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund are examples in this category.
2. Bilateral development assistance from individual donor countries, such as U.S. Aid for International Development and Japan's Official Development Assistance.
3. The International Panel on Climate Change provides no funding for new research, monitoring, or direct scientific capacity building in developing countries, but a sizable portion of its annual budget goes to travel support for global change experts from developing countries to participate in IPCC meetings and workshops.
“Daniel Esty of the Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy says, ‘The global environmental governance structure is inadequate for the pollution and resource challenges the world faces today.’ Esty said, the entire body is “weak and performing poorly.” He concluded, “The growing recognition that a number of serious pollution control and resource management issues are inherently transboundary in their scope makes the status quo unacceptable and the need for improved global environmental governance urgent.”
Louisiana Wetland Discussion
Wetlands Physical Situation
Louisiana has 7,721 miles of shoreline and extensive estuaries, sounds, lagoons, and brackish bayous , with a coastal population of 2,044,880 residents. Coastal waters and waterways provide habitat for many species of fish, invertebrates, and mammals.
“Palustrine Wetlands, which include scrub shrub, non-tidal and tidal marshes and ponds, are the most common type of wetland in Louisiana. The most common palustrine wetland is the swamp or forested wetlands, which make up 59% of the wetlands in Louisiana. Coastal wetlands consist mostly of salt water or brackish water marshes, estuarine emergent wetlands.”
More than 1900 Square miles of Louisiana’s coastal wetlands have disappeared. “According to LSU’s Greg Stone of the Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, Louisiana is experiencing the highest rate of coastal erosion in America, losing about 100 yards of land every 30 minutes. That is a football field every half-hour.”
“It’s hard to fathom, but in just 250 years, some 2.5 million acres of coastal prairie that once blanketed southwest Louisiana have dwindled to just 200 in scattered parcels.”
Coastal Louisiana has lost over 900,000 acres since the 1930’s. As recently as the 1970’s, the loss rate for Louisiana’s coastal wetlands was as high as 25,600 acres per year. The current rate of loss is about 16,000 acres per year. Coastal Louisiana will experience a 320,000-acre net loss by the year 2050.
Louisiana is comprised of two primary geographic regions, the lowlands and the uplands. Much of the landscape of south Louisiana was formed during the Holocene (0.01 mya to present) epoch. The lowlands of Louisiana subdivide into three major divisions.
1. Mississippi and Red River alluvial plain
2. Deltaic plain
3. Chenier plain
The Mississippi River Basin drains 41% of the contiguous United States and a portion of Canada, transporting water and sediment over an area of 1.2 million square miles.
“Most of Louisiana was formed by Mississippi River sediment deposits. The Mississippi River was carrying vast sediment loads and sedimentary rocks from the core of the North American continent and depositing it on the rim of the Gulf of Mexico. Consequently, organic matter from highly productive marine waters makes up the soil content for the coastal area of Louisiana.
Holocene (0.01 mya to present) alluvial sediments of the Mississippi, Red, Ouachita, and other rivers and smaller tributaries, together with coastal marsh deposits, occupy about 55% of Louisiana’s surface. The alluvial sediments consist of sandy and gravelly channel deposits mantled by sandy to muddy natural levee deposits, with organic-rich muddy backswamp deposits in between.
“The fluvial and deltaic processes that created Louisiana’s underlying geologic strata still exist today. Left unchecked, the Mississippi River would alter its course every few centuries. While this natural process would reinvigorate the ecosystem by adding sediments and nutrients, the results would incur unacceptable human devastation. Thus, the Army Corps of Engineers works to contain the river in its present channel. However, while this effort keeps the river open to navigation and commerce, it also has negative consequences. The river’s containment has resulted in unacceptable rates of erosion in the state’s coastal regions.
The river originally deposited sediment along the Louisiana coast, which restored wetlands and coastal marshes, built up land to keep up with natural subsidence rates, and replenished coastal fisheries with necessary nutrients. By keeping the river confined, the overextended course deposits sediment over the edge of the continental shelf. The consequence is high rates of coastal erosion and subsidence. However, one further significant negative result has gained recent attention. Due to the lack of fresh water flowing through marshes and estuaries, salt water intrudes deep into these ecologically fragile environments, inextricably altering local flora and fauna.” The coastal region of Louisiana formed over the last 7,500 years. Coastal marsh deposits are chiefly fine-grained clay, silt and organic matter.
Since the turn of the last century, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has held the Mississippi River in its present course. This containment contributes to the current dilemma of erosion in the coastal regions. If the river shifted its course naturally while flooding naturally, the sediment could replenish the wetlands and coastal marshes that are now deteriorating. The river now holds an overextended course that has reached the edge of the continent shelf, and most of its sediment now accumulates there and farther out in the Gulf.
Wetland Commercial Values
Currently, over half of the human population in North America lives in coastal cities. In 1960, there were 80 million coastal residents. By 2010, over 120 million people will call coastal regions home, a growth rate of 60 percent. In the Gulf Coast alone, it is projected to have a population growth of nearly 37 percent by 2025 is projected.
Almost one-third of the nation's oil and gas production and the largest seafood harvest in the lower 48 states originate in the Louisiana wetlands. Additionally, Louisiana’s coastline protects one of the largest shipping and fuel production corridors in the U.S. from hurricanes and open water conditions. “Just one of Louisiana's major ports receives about a million barrels of oil every day - roughly 13 percent of the nation's foreign oil supply.”
“The marsh's mixture of salt and fresh water is an essential nursery for shrimp, crabs, and a variety of fish species. Annually, the dockside value of Louisiana's commercial seafood harvest is more than $342.7 million and recreational fishing is a $944 million industry.”
The inland waters, costal marshes, and offshore waters of Louisiana support fishing and aquaculture industries. The shrimp fishery is Louisiana’s largest commercial fishery, accounting for over 85% of the value of the state’s edible fisheries production. The shrimp industry is based on the brown and white shrimp (Penaeus aztecus and Penaeus setiferus), harvested inshore in the spring and fall respectively, which accounts for 93 to 96% of landings by poundage.
On average, 40% of Louisiana landings are in inshore state waters, 43% are in the state’s offshore waters, and 17% are in federal waters off Louisiana’s coast from 1976 to 1990. White shrimp landings for the year 2000 totaled 75,864,278 pounds (34,411.8 metric tons) for a value of $152,374,346.
The total take of brown shrimp for the year 2000 was 62,115,422 pounds (28,175.4 metric tons) for a value of $96,514,340. Processing industries are a source of additional employment. The shrimp fishery, as mandated by the Louisiana Legislature, is under the supervision and control of the Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commission.
From 1970-1990 just over 40% of the Gulf of Mexico shrimp landings were landed in Louisiana. The state’s shrimp industry lands about 70% of the Gulf production of small shrimp.
Both absolute landings and share of Gulf landings have increased during that period. Some scientists have hypothesized that this rise is attributable to an increase in shrimp habitat resulting from deterioration of the wetlands along coastal Louisiana. If this is the case, Louisiana catch may begin to decline within the next 15-20 years.
The landings of large shrimp (greater than 30 count headless) have decreased since 1970 both in absolute terms and as a proportion of total landings. In 1990, they were less that 12% of total landings. The proportion of medium size shrimp (31-67 count headless) has remained stable at 27-29% of the total. The proportion of small shrimp (greater than 67 count headless) has increased in the past 20 years and has averaged near 60% since the mid 1980's.
Oyster production in Louisiana is a $30 million dockside industry. Louisiana’s coastal waters produce an average of 13 million pounds of oysters annually, of which 60% are ships to other states and countries. Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) landings for the year 2000 totaled 11,513,438 pounds (5,222.5 metric tons) for a value of $24,614,159.
The blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) is the only crab of commercial importance in the State of Louisiana. Blue crab landings for the year 2000 totaled 51,430,385 pounds (23,328.7 metric tons) for a value of $36,770,381. Peeler blue crab landings for the year 2000 totaled 544,716 pounds (247.1 metric tons) for a value of $906,196. The total take of soft blue crab for the year 2000 was 56,887 pounds (25.8 metric tons) for a value of $262,140.
The Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) is by far the most prolific commercial finfish caught in Louisiana’s waters. Atlantic menhaden landings for the year 2000 totaled 1,111,978,535 pounds (504,390.2 metric tons) for a value of $68,586,452. In addition, there are important fisheries for sand seatrout ( Cynoscion arenarius), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), black drum (Pogonias cromis), red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus), and southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma).
Freshwater species of commercial importance include blue catfish ( Ictalurus furcatus), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris), yellow bullhead (Ameiurus natalis), bowfin (Amia calva), carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio), gar (Lepisosteus occulatus and Lepisosteus spatula), and buffalo (bigmouth-Ictiobus cypriellus and smallmouth-Ictiobus bubalus).
Louisiana Wetland Management
“In 1990, passage of the Coastal Wetland Planning, Protection Restoration Act, (PL-101-646, Title 111, CWPPRA), locally referred to as the Breaux Act provided authorization and funding for a multi-agency task force to begin actions to curtail wetland losses. In 1998, after extensive studies and construction of a number of coastal restoration projects accomplished under CWPPRA, the State of Louisiana and the Federal agencies charged with restoring and protecting the remainder of Louisiana’s valuable coastal wetlands adopted a new coastal restoration plan in 1998. The underlying principles of the new plan, “Coast 2050: Toward a Sustainable Coastal Louisiana,” known as the Coast 2050 Plan, are to restore and/or mimic the natural processes that built and maintained coastal Louisiana. This necessitates basin-scale action to restore more natural hydrology and sediment introduction processes. The plan sub-divides Louisiana’s coastal zone into four regions with nine hydrologic basins. The plan proposes ecosystem restoration strategies that would result in efforts larger in scale than any that have been implemented in the past.”
In July of 2004, The Louisiana Coastal Area (LCA) Comprehensive Coastwide Ecosystem Restoration Study was made available for public comment. The draft report proposed $1.9 billion in funding for a near-term and long-term management plan addressing coastal erosion in Louisiana. Specifically the plan called for an approach to addressing the most critical ecological needs of Louisiana’s coast.
In January 2005, Louisiana and the federal government will sign a partnership agreement Monday, Jan. 31, dedicating their “combined efforts towards a common goal of reversing the current trend of degradation of Louisiana’s coastal ecosystem”.
By January 2005, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco and Lt. Gen. Carl A. Strock, chief of engineers, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, signed a partnership agreement dedicating their “combined efforts towards a common goal of reversing the current trend of degradation of Louisiana’s coastal ecosystem”.
In addition, Strock signed his own Chief of Engineer’s Report, a summary for the Congress, of the Louisiana Coastal Area Ecosystem Restoration Study. The LCA news release stated, “The general’s signature is a historic step in the advancement of the coastal restoration blueprint toward authorization. The study is a multi-agency achievement of a partnership of the Corps of Engineers and the state through the Department of Natural Resources.”
Restoration efforts, funded via the Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection and Restoration Act (CWPPRA) and administered through the Louisiana Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration Task Force of the LCA, are helping to solve the problem. To date, about $334 million in federal (CWPPRA) and matching state funds have been committed for coastal wetlands restoration projects in Louisiana; 34 of the 91 projects that the task force approved for construction are completed, and 15 more are under construction.
“The Louisiana Division of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) manages 48 Wildlife Management Areas (WMA’s) totaling more than 1.2 million acres. The LWDF Fur and Refuge Division manages 9 refuges and WMA’s located in the Louisiana Coastal Zone, totaling over 428,000 acres.
The Fur and Refuge Division of the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries is responsible for several aspects of wildlife management in the state, mostly in the coastal zone. This division manages a total of 428,043.88 acres of coastal marsh on five refuges and four Wildlife Management Areas (WMA’s). The Fur and Refuge Division is responsible for management and supervision of fur, alligator, reptile, and amphibian resources within the state. Applied research into coastal marsh management practices for fur, estuarine fisheries, and wildlife resources is another objective of the division. Life-history investigations of marsh wildlife and fisheries are other tasks handled by this division. Properties currently administered by the Fur and Refuge Division are open for various forms of public recreation.”
“Wildlife Management Areas (WMA's) and refuges managed by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) offer many recreational opportunities such as hunting, fishing, hiking, camping, birding and botanizing. Of the approximately 3,200 plant species that comprise Louisiana's diverse flora, about 2400 are native. Of our native plants, about 350 are rare. Data on rare plant populations are collected by staff of the Louisiana Natural Heritage Program (LNHP), part of LDWF. WMA's and refuges currently support 348 rare plant occurrences and 137 natural community occurrences.”
Ramsar Convention
History
The Convention on Wetlands, signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an intergovernmental treaty, which provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. The Convention entered into force in 1975 and as of May 2005 has 145 Contracting Parties.
Ramsar is the first of the modern global intergovernmental treaty on conservation and wise use of natural resources
“Although examples of multilateral nature conservation agreements can be traced back to the turn of the century and beyond, not until the late 1960’s did the international environmentally concerned communities begin to perceive the true seriousness of the threat posed by the continuing degradation of the natural environment and the urgent need for a concerted global response.
The 1968 UNESCO Conference, which led to the inauguration of that Organization’s ‘Man and the Biosphere’ Program, constituted an important early step in this process, as did the more widely-renowned UN Conference on the Human Environment, held at Stockholm in 1972.
The international environmental community adopted a substantial number of international environmental treaties from that year onwards. The Ramsar Wetlands Convention, concluded the year before Stockholm, thus stood astride the very threshold of modern environmental law, its founding fathers unquestionably apprised of many of the key tenets of contemporary conservation philosophy.”
More than 1429 wetlands exist on the List of Wetlands of International Importance, covering some 125,032,572 hectares, more than the surface area of France, Germany, and Switzerland combined.
“Judged by the standards of modern environmental treaties, the Ramsar Convention in its original form seems an extraordinarily simple, almost simplistic, legal instrument. The treaty comprises a mere twelve articles, four of which were devoted to the articulation of substantive obligations, four to institutional arrangements and other mechanisms for implementation, and four to the final clauses governing participation and the exercise of depositary functions.”
Mission and Procedures
“The Convention's mission is the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. UNESCO serves as Depositary for the Convention, but its administration has been entrusted to a secretariat known as the “Ramsar Bureau”, which is housed in the headquarters of IUCN–The World Conservation Union in Gland, Switzerland, under the authority of the Conference of the Parties and the Standing Committee of the Convention.”
Benefits of Ramsar
BMP’s
According to Ramsar when a country joins the Convention the commitment represents:
• an endorsement of the principles that the Convention represents, facilitating the development at national level of policies and actions, including legislation that helps nations to make the best possible use of their wetland resources in their quest for sustainable development;
• an opportunity for a country to make its voice heard in the principal intergovernmental forum on the conservation and wise use of wetlands;
• increased publicity and prestige for the wetlands designated for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, and hence increased possibility of support for conservation and wise use measures;
• access to the latest information and advice on application of the Convention’s internationally-accepted standards, such as criteria for identifying wetlands of international importance, guidelines on application of the wise use concept, and guidelines on management planning in wetlands;
• access to expert advice on national and site-related problems of wetland conservation and management through contacts with Ramsar Bureau personnel and consultants and through application of the Ramsar Advisory Mission mechanism when appropriate; and
• international cooperation on wetland issues and brings the possibility of support for wetland projects, either through the Convention’s own Small Grants Fund or through the Convention’s contacts with multilateral and bilateral external support agencies.
“Prudent investments in the protection of natural ecosystems and human welfare are in the economic interest of the United States. Making these investments now can yield dividends for our children's future; dividends in the form of more bountiful harvests, life-saving drugs, a stable climate, and a clean environment. The Ramsar Convention funding will be particularly critical to assure the global supply of seafood and the abundance of waterfowl and other bird species. Wetland conservation through the Convention provides other, crucial ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, which counteracts global warming, water quality enhancement, and flood damage reduction.”
Provides opportunities for actions to increase knowledge and awareness of wetlands and their values, including:
• interchange of experience and information on wetland policy, conservation and wise use between countries preparing and/or implementing national wetland policies, or pursuing wetland conservation;
• Increasing the awareness and understanding of decision-makers and the public of the full benefits and values, within the terms of wise use, of wetlands. Among these benefits and values, which can occur on or off the wetland itself, are:
• sediment and erosion control policies
• flood control maintenance of water quality and abatement of pollution,
• maintenance of surface and underground water supply,
• support for fisheries, grazing and agriculture,
• outdoor recreation and education for human society,
• provision of habitat for wildlife, especially waterfowl, and
• contribution to climatic stability
“Minimal costs include time spent negotiating the MoU and management plans, plus costs associated with ongoing monitoring. The benefits are that the landowners gain assurances about the future uses of the wetland, these being determined through the agreed management plan. Ramsar listing also places the onus on the governments involved to ensure external impacts do not degrade the wetland, which includes ensuring the provision of adequate water supplies. Ramsar listing provides added leverage in securing funding and other assistance with management.”
The Convention promotes the sustainable use of aquatic ecosystems, allowing communities to gain economic benefits from these areas while maintaining the ecosystem's viability. Ramsar designations have brought many environmental and economic benefits to sites in the United States, including improved water quality, enhanced wildlife habitat, and increased tourism. In many developing nations, the Ramsar Convention is the only policy tool available for protecting aquatic ecosystems.
Eco Tourism
“Ramsar sites can attract significant numbers of visitors, and this can often be of considerable benefit to the local, and even national, economy. There should be a positive presumption in favor of providing access and appropriate facilities for visitors.
Objectives, prescriptions and management projects should be developed for public access and tourism based upon an approach similar to that used for features. Public access and tourism are taken in their widest meaning and include anyone who visits the site for any reason other than official purposes. Access and tourism can make a significant contribution towards the costs of managing Ramsar sites.”
Criticism of Ramsar
“Calestous Juma, a Harvard professor and former UNEP official, argues global environmental organization is unnecessary and may get entangled in bureaucracy. Saying that a global environmental agency would be ‘too cumbersome to work,’ he notes that centralized, hierarchical UN agencies are widely regarded as inefficient, and that UN agencies are increasingly relying on networks of other parties.
“The strength of the treaties lies in the fact that they give more power and authority to governments and citizens, not to centralized UN agencies," Juma wrote to the Financial Times of London.
Juma's lack of confidence in the United Nations is widely shared. Oran Young, a Dartmouth College professor and director of its Institute of International Environmental Governance, notes that post-cold war euphoria about UN leadership is ‘giving way to mounting skepticism about the capacity of the United Nations to cope with an array of pressing problems.’
Currently, each environmental agreement is overseen by a conference of the parties, which delegates duties to a secretariat, scientific advisory body, and other organizations. Instead of a new hierarchical organization to coordinate these bodies, he calls for greater coordination between them in what he calls "environmental alliances" or "clusters”. Bodies implementing the Convention on Biodiversity, for instance, already work closely with those in charge of the Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international significance. Those two conventions could work with CITES and other conventions to draft consensus standards for sustainable uses of land.”
Rather than being traditional “protected areas”, Ramsar sites are generally places where “wise use” is practiced, and as such, they are demonstration sites for the principles and approaches to sustainability. Traditional preservationists prefer stricter management of wildlife refuges.
Implementation of the Wise Use Concept
The wise use” principle inscribed in Article 3.1 of the Convention in 1971, and its definition and application by the Conference of the Contracting Parties, have been established and have evolved completely independently from the so-called wise use movement that has emerged in recent years in North America. The use of the same term does not necessarily indicate that there is a commonality of understanding and/or purpose.
Article 3.1 of the Convention states that the Contracting Parties shall formulate and implement their planning to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in the List and as far as possible the wise use of wetlands in their territory.
The 3rd Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties in Regina, Canada in 1987, adopted the following definition of wise use of wetlands:
“The wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilization for the benefit of humankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem".
Sustainable utilization is defined as "human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations".
Natural properties of the ecosystem are defined as "those physical, biological or chemical components, such as soil, water, plants, animals and nutrients, and the interactions between them”.
The wise use provisions apply to all wetlands and their support systems within the territory of a Contracting Party, both those wetlands designated for the List, and all other wetlands. The concept of wise use seeks both the formulation and implementation of general wetland policies, and wise use of specific wetlands. According to Ramsar, these activities are integral parts of sustainable development.
The Ramsar Convention is not anti-development; on the contrary, it is about finding ways to use wetlands sustainably. Article 2.4 of the Convention established that “The inclusion of a wetland in the List does not prejudice the exclusive sovereign rights of the Contracting Party in whose territory the wetland is situated.” The treaty does require that the overall condition of the wetland be maintained in order to sustain the high level of biodiversity of the site.
Enforcement mechanisms are often lacking in the international arena. Rules (treaties, protocols, agreements) are not good if no one complies with them. Since no institution has the power or authority to sanction national governments, compliance depends largely on the voluntary actions of national governments.
Criteria for Qualification
Selection for the Ramsar List is based on the wetland’s significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology, or hydrology. The Contracting Parties have adopted specific criteria and guidelines for identifying sites that qualify for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
Article 2(1) provides that each member party is to designate suitable wetlands within its territory for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance. Article 2(2) establishes the broad criteria to be applied in this selection process.
Article 2(1) states, “Wetlands should be selected for the List on account of their international significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology. In the first instance wetlands of international importance to waterfowl at any season should be included.”
Below are the current criteria for gaining designation on the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
Group A of the Criteria. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types
Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.
Group B of the Criteria. Sites of international importance for conserving biological diversity
Criteria based on species and ecological communities
Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
Specific criteria based on waterbirds
Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.
Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
Specific criteria based on fish
Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
In 2002, the Convention adopted the Strategic Framework for Listing of Wetlands of International Importance with detailed guidelines for application. The criteria under this agreement are below:
Criteria for identifying Wetlands of International Importance, guidelines for their application, and long-term targets
This Section of the Strategic Framework for the Ramsar List, the Criteria for designating sites are presented, along with the long-term target the Convention has for each. For each Criterion, guidelines are also provided to assist Contracting Parties in taking a systematic approach to identifying their priority sites for designation.
Group A of the Criteria. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types
Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List at least one suitable representative of each wetland type, according to the Ramsar classification system (Section IV), which is found within each biogeographic region.
Guidelines
In applying this Criterion systematically, Contracting Parties are encouraged to:
i. determine biogeographic regions within their territory or at the supranational/ regional level;
ii. Within each biogeographic region, determine the range of wetland types present (using the Ramsar classification system for wetland type, Appendix A), noting in particular any rare or unique wetland types; and
iii. for each wetland type within each biogeographic region, identify for designation under the Convention those sites, which provide the best examples
Objective 1 and, in particular 1.2 (paragraph 10 above), indicates that another consideration under this Criterion is to give priority to those wetlands which play a substantial hydrological, biological or ecological role in the natural functioning of a major river basin or coastal system. In terms of hydrological functioning, the following is provided to assist Contracting Parties consider this aspect of determining priority sites under this Criterion. For guidance relevant to biological and ecological roles refer to Criterion 2 following.
Hydrological importance. As indicated by Article 2 of the Convention, wetlands can be selected for their hydrological importance, which, inter alia, may include the following attributes. They may:
i. play a major role in the natural control, amelioration or prevention of flooding;
ii. be important for seasonal water retention for wetlands or other areas of conservation importance downstream;
iii. be important for the recharge of aquifers;
iv. form part of karst or underground hydrological or spring systems that supply major surface wetlands;
v. be major natural floodplain systems;
vi. have a major hydrological influence in the context of at least regional climate regulation or stability (e.g., certain areas of cloud forest or rainforest, wetlands or wetland complexes in semi-arid, arid or desert areas, tundra or peatland systems acting as sinks for carbon, etc.);
vii. have a major role in maintaining high water quality standards.
Group B of the Criteria. Sites of international importance for conserving biological diversity
Criteria based on species and ecological communities
Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which are believed to be of importance for the survival of vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
Guidelines
Ramsar sites have an important role in the conservation of globally threatened species and ecological communities. Notwithstanding the small numbers of individuals that may be involved or poor quality of quantitative data or information that may sometimes be available, particular consideration should be given to listing wetlands that support globally threatened species at any stage of their lifecycle using Criterion 2 or 3.
General Objective 2.2 within this Strategic Framework urges Contracting Parties to seek to include in the Ramsar List wetlands that include threatened ecological communities or are critical to the survival of species identified as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered under national endangered species legislation/programs or within international frameworks such as the IUCN Red Lists or the Appendices of CITES and CMS.
When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a network of sites providing habitat for rare, vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species. Ideally, the sites in the network will have the following characteristics. They:
i. support a mobile population of a species at different stages of its life cycle; and/or
ii. support a population of a species along a migratory pathway or flyway – noting that different species have different migratory strategies with different maximum distances needed between staging areas; and/or
iii. are ecologically linked in other ways, such as through providing refuge areas to populations during adverse conditions; and/or
iv. are adjacent to or in close proximity to other wetlands included in the Ramsar List, the conservation of which enhances the viability of threatened species’ population by increasing the size of habitat that is protected; and/or
v. hold a high proportion of the population of a dispersed sedentary species that occupies a restricted habitat type.
For identifying threatened ecological communities, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of sites that have the following characteristics. They:
i. include significant areas having certain communities, particularly where these are of high quality or particularly typical of the biogeographic region; and/or
ii. are sites, which have rare communities; and/or
iii. include ecotones, seral stages, and communities which exemplify particular processes; and/or
iv. have communities that can no longer develop under contemporary conditions (because of climate change or anthropogenic interference for example); and/or
v. have communities at the contemporary stage of a long developmental history and which support a well-preserved paleoenvironmental archive; and/or
vi. are sites which have communities that are functionally critical to the survival of other (perhaps rarer) communities or particular species; and/or
vii. contain communities that have been the subject of significant decline in extent or occurrence.
Note also the issues concerning habitat diversity and succession in paragraphs 46 to 49 above, "Boundary definition of sites".
Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which are believed to be of importance for maintaining the biological diversity within each biogeographic region.
Guidelines
When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a suite of sites that have the following characteristics. They:
i. are "hotspots" of biological diversity and are evidently species-rich even though the number of species present may not be accurately known; and/or
ii. are centers of endemism or otherwise contain significant numbers of endemic species; and/or
iii. contain the range of biological diversity (including habitat types) occurring in a region; and/or
iv. contain a significant proportion of species adapted to special environmental conditions (such as temporary wetlands in semi-arid or arid areas); and/or
v. support particular elements of biological diversity that are rare or particularly characteristic of the biogeographic region.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which are the most important for providing habitat for plant or animal species during critical stages of their life cycle and/or when adverse conditions prevail.
Guidelines
Critical sites for mobile or migratory species are those that contain particularly high proportions of populations gathered in relatively small areas at particular stages of life cycles. This may be at particular times of the year or, in semi-arid or arid areas, during years with a particular rainfall pattern. For example, many waterbirds use relatively small areas as key staging points (to eat and rest) on their long-distance migrations between breeding and non-breeding areas. For Anatidae species, molting sites are also critical. Sites in semi-arid or arid areas may hold very important concentrations of waterbirds and other mobile wetland species and be crucial to the survival of populations, yet may vary greatly in apparent importance from year-to-year because of considerable variability in rainfall patterns.
Non-migratory wetland species are unable to move away when climatic or other conditions become unfavorable and only some sites may feature the special ecological characteristics to sustain species’ populations in the medium or long-term. Thus, in dry periods, some crocodile and fish species retreat to deeper areas or pools within wetland complexes, as the extent of suitable aquatic habitat diminishes. These restricted areas are critical for the survival of animals at that site until rains come and increase the extent of wetland habitat once more. Sites (often with complex ecological, geomorphologic and physical structures) which perform such functions for non-migratory species are especially important for the persistence of populations and should be considered as priority candidates for listing.
Specific criteria based on waterbirds
Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List all wetlands which regularly support 20,000 or more waterbirds.
Guidelines
When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a network of sites that provide habitat for waterbird assemblages containing globally threatened species or subspecies. These are currently poorly represented in the Ramsar List (Green 1996). Refer also to paragraph 44 above, Species presence in perspective.
Non-native waterbirds should not be included within the totals for a particular site (refer also to paragraph 45 above, Non-native species).
This Criterion will apply to wetlands of varying size in different Contracting Parties. While it is impossible to give precise guidance on the size of an area in which these numbers may occur, wetlands identified as being of international importance under Criterion 5 should form an ecological unit, and may thus be made up of one big area or a group of smaller wetlands. Refer also to paragraphs 50 and 51 above, Site clusters. Consideration may also be given to turnover of waterbirds at migration periods, so that a cumulative total is reached, if such data are available.
185. Refer also to paragraph 52 above, Complementary international frameworks.
Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List all wetlands which regularly support 1% or more of a biogeographic population of waterbird species or subspecies.
Guidelines
When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion, greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a suite of sites that hold populations of globally threatened species or subspecies. Refer also to paragraph 44 above, Species presence in perspective, and paragraph 52 above, Complementary international frameworks. Consideration may also be given to turnover of waterbirds at migration periods, so that a cumulative total is reached, if such data are available.
To ensure international comparability, where possible, Contracting Parties should use the international population estimates and 1% thresholds published and updated every three years by Wetlands International as the basis for evaluating sites for the List using this Criterion. As urged by Resolution VI.4, for the better application of this Criterion, Contracting Parties should not only supply data for the future update and revision of international waterbird population estimates, but also support the national implementation and development of Wetlands International’s International Waterbird Census, which is the source of much of these data.
Specific criteria based on fish
Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands that supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families and populations.
Guidelines
Fishes are the most abundant vertebrates associated with wetlands. Worldwide, over 18,000 species of fishes are resident for all or part of their life cycles in wetlands.
Criterion 7 indicates that a wetland can be designated as internationally important if it has a high diversity of fishes and shellfishes. It emphasizes the different forms that diversity might take, including the number of taxa, different life-history stages, species interactions, and the complexity of interactions between the above taxa and the external environment. Species counts alone are thus not sufficient to assess the importance of a particular wetland. In addition, the different ecological roles that species may play at different stages in their life cycles needs to be considered.
Implicit in this understanding of biological diversity is the importance of high levels of endemism and of biodisparity. Many wetlands are characterized by the endemic nature of their fish fauna.
Some measure of the level of endemism should be used to distinguish sites of international importance. If at least 10% of fish are endemic to a wetland, or to wetlands in a natural grouping, that site should be recognized as internationally important, but the absence of endemic fishes from a site should not disqualify it if it has other qualifying characteristics. In some wetlands, such as the African Great Lakes, Lake Baikal in the Russian Federation, Lake Titicaca in Bolivia/Peru, sinkholes and cave lakes in arid regions, and lakes on islands, endemism levels as high as 90-100% may be reached, but 10% is a practical figure for worldwide application. In areas with no endemic fish species, the endemism of genetically distinct infraspecific categories, such as geographical races, should be used.
Over 734 species of fish are threatened with extinction worldwide, and at least 92 are known to have become extinct over the past 400 years (Baillie & Groombridge 1996). The occurrence of rare or threatened fish is catered for in Criterion 2.
An important component of biological diversity is biodisparity, i.e., the range of morphologies and reproductive styles in a community. The biodisparity of a wetland community will be determined by the diversity and predictability of its habitats in time and space, i.e., the more heterogeneous and unpredictable the habitats, the greater the biodisparity of the fish fauna. For example, Lake Malawi, a stable, ancient lake, has over 600 fish species of which 92% are maternal mouth brooding cichlids, but only a few fish families. In contrast, the Okavango Swamp of Botswana, a palustrine floodplain that fluctuates between wet and dry phases, has only 60 fish species but a wider variety of morphologies and reproductive styles, and many fish families, and therefore has a greater biodisparity (Bruton & Merron 1990). Measures of both biological diversity and biodisparity should be used to assess the international importance of a wetland.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
Long-term target for the Ramsar List:
To have included in the Ramsar List those wetlands which provide important food sources for fishes, or are spawning grounds, nursery areas and/or on their migration path.
Guidelines
Many fishes (including shellfishes) have complex life histories, with spawning, nursery and feeding grounds widely separated and long migrations necessary between them. It is important to conserve all those areas that are essential for the completion of a fish’s life cycle if the fish species or stock is to be maintained. The productive, shallow habitats offered by coastal wetlands (including coastal lagoons, estuaries, salt marshes, inshore rocky reefs, and sandy slopes) are extensively used as feeding and spawning grounds and nurseries by fishes with open water adult stages. These wetlands therefore support essential ecological processes for fish stocks, even if they do not necessarily harbor large adult fish populations themselves.
Furthermore, many fishes in rivers, swamps or lakes spawn in one part of the ecosystem but spend their adult lives in other inland waters or in the sea. It is common for fishes in lakes to migrate up rivers to spawn, and for fishes in rivers to migrate downstream to a lake or estuary, or beyond the estuary to the sea, to spawn. Many swamp fishes migrate from deeper, more permanent waters to shallow, temporarily inundated areas for spawning. Wetlands, even apparently insignificant ones in one part of a river system, may therefore be vital for the proper functioning of extensive river reaches up- or downstream of the wetland.
This is for guidance only and does not interfere with the rights of Contracting Parties to regulate fisheries within specific wetlands and/or elsewhere.
U.S. Listing Procedures.
The April 6, 1990 Federal Register, Vol. 55 established the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service policy, guidelines and procedures for nominating sites to the List of Wetlands of International Importance. The notice provided supplemental guidance to the Convention for determining site eligibility.
Authority The authority for establishment of these guidelines flows from the United States Senate ratification of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, which is deemed self-implementing.
Scope This policy is limited to evaluation of proposed sites for nomination to the List of Wetlands of International Importance. It is not intended for any other use.
Policy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on Wetlands of International Importance The Service's commitment to wetlands conservation is addressed in a number of documents, most recently the National Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan. The Fish and Wildlife Service Policy and Guidelines on Wetlands of International Importance was developed to ensure compliance with the Protocol and articles of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat. In review sites eligible for inclusion to the List, it will be the policy of the Service to consider for nomination only those sites where:
The ownership rights are free from encumbrances or dispute and the lands are in public or private management that is conductive to the conservation of wetland:
Maintenance of the ecological and hydrological characteristics of the site(s) should be reasonable assured such that future actions would not result in delisting by the Conference of Parties; and
Proposed sites will only be considered if there is concurrence from either the State, Commonwealth or territory where the site(s) is (are) located and a Congressional Representative.
Description of Guidelines for Site Nomination In order to solicit appropriate nominations to the List of Wetlands of International Importance, the Service will publish an annual Action Notice in the Federal Register. The Action Notice will specify the period for submissions and where materials may be sent. Nominations can be made only by the appropriate administrative authority for a site. For the purpose of nominations can be made only by the appropriate administrative authority for a site. For the purpose of nominating sites, the appropriate administrative authority is defined as the party holding title to the land area. Nominations must have the endorsement/concurrence from both the State(s), Commonwealth or territory in which the site is located and a Congressional Representative. Supporting information for site nominations should include the following:
Nominating authority. Include name, address and other pertness information on the administrative authority submitting the site nomination.
Geographical location. Details such as latitude and longitude coordinates, and nearby features, settlements, and other identifying characteristics should be provided.
In addition, include detailed maps of both the site as well as the surrounding areas if they are available.
Site description. This section comprises both a physical and a biological description of the site. The physical description includes details of geomorphology, hydrology and climate, which the biological description includes a brief review of habitat types, with lists of both typical and noteworthy fauna and flora.
Criteria for inclusion. Specify the criterion (a) as listed by the Convention of Parties that qualifies the site as a Wetland of International Importance. Highlight those factors for which the site has been generally considered to be of particular importance.
Area. Identify the total area (in hectares) of the proposed site including information on terrestrial and aquatic components.
Management practices. Note management practices and traditional activities that take place.
Changes in ecological character. Give a brief synopsis of the natural history of the area and note any land use changes impacts to the ecological functions or character of the area.
Degree of protection. Note any State, local, national or international recognition or designation afforded to the site. Indicate if any activities are controlled or prohibited.
Scientific research and facilities. Highlight research underway or facilities provided (if any) for research interests.
Reference material. Note any key publications, reports, or documents used to compile the information presented. This is not intended to be a complete reference list.
The Service coordinates review of proposed site(s) for inclusion to the list with the appropriate State, Federal and non-governmental organizations. It is not the intention of the Service to maintain a standing backlog of sites for nomination, but rather to solicit prospective sites from the Federal and State agencies, private organizations and the scientific community via the Action Notice procedures described above. Once reviewed, those nominations that adhere to the criteria and policies set forth above will be formally presented to the Convention Secretarial by the Director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Action taken by the Secretariat will be announced in the annual Action Notice described previously in section V. Management authorities for nominated sites will be forwarded information on actions taken by the Secretariat immediately.
Guidelines for Implementing the Ramsar Criteria
“To assist Contracting Parties in assessing the suitability of wetlands for inclusion on the List of Wetlands of International Importance, the Conference of the Contracting Parties has formulated the following guidelines for application of the Criteria.
1. A wetland could be considered of international importance under Criterion 1 if, because of its outstanding role in natural, biological, ecological or hydrological systems, it is of substantial value in supporting human communities dependent on the wetland.
In this context, such support would include:
• provision of food, fiber or fuel; or
• maintenance of cultural values; or
• support of food chains, water quality, flood control or climatic stability. The support, in all its aspects, should remain within the framework of sustainable use and habitat conservation, and should not change the ecological character of the wetland
Or
2. A wetland could be considered of international importance under Criterion 1, 2 or 3 if it conforms to additional guidelines developed at regional (e.g. Scandinavian or West African) or national level.
Elaboration of such regional or national guidelines may be especially appropriate:
• where particular groups of animals (other than waterfowl) or plants are considered more suitable as a basis for evaluation; or
• where waterfowl and other animals do not occur in large concentrations (particularly in northern latitudes); or
• where collection of data is difficult (particularly in very large countries).
Or
3. The particular groups of waterfowl, indicative of wetland values, productivity or diversity include any of the following:
• loons or divers: Gaviidae;
• grebes: Podicipedidae;
• cormorants: Phalacrocoracidae;
• pelicans: Pelecanidae;
• herons, bitterns, storks, ibises and spoonbills: Ciconiiformes;
• swans, geese and ducks (wildfowl): Anatidae;
• wetland related raptors: Accipitriformes and Falconiformes;
• cranes: Gruidae;
• shorebirds or waders: Charadriidae; and
• terns: Sternidae
Or
4. The specific criteria based on waterfowl numbers will apply to wetlands of varying size in different Contracting Parties. While it is impossible to give precise guidance on the size of an area in which these numbers may occur, wetlands identified as being of international importance under Criterion 3 should form an ecological unit, and may thus be made up of one big area or a group of smaller wetlands. Consideration may also be given to turnover of waterfowl at migration periods, so that a cumulative total is reached, if such data are available.
Guidelines for the application of Criterion 4
Fishes are the most abundant vertebrates associated with wetlands. Worldwide, over 18,000 species of fishes are resident for all or part of their life cycles in wetlands as defined by the Ramsar Convention.
The importance of Criterion 4 is that a wetland can be designated as internationally important if it has a high diversity of fishes and shellfishes even if it does not fulfill the requirements of the other criteria. Furthermore, this criterion emphasizes the different forms that diversity might take, including the number of subspecies, species and families, different life-history stages, species interactions, and the complexity of interactions between the above taxa and the external environment.
Fish diversity therefore includes diversity within species, between species and between ecosystems. It also includes the diversity of genetically similar intraspecific ecological units, for instance, salmon runs or the different geographical races of marine fishes that have been identified in many regional seas around the world. Species counts alone are not sufficient to assess the importance of a particular wetland.
In addition, the concept of the “niche” is a consideration, i.e. the different ecological roles that species may play at different stages in their life cycles. This point is especially relevant to animals that have a marked metamorphosis in their life cycle, such as corals, barnacles, many aquatic insects, amphibians, fishes with larvae or leptocephali and birds with naked young, e.g. passerines, some birds of prey, and egrets.
Implicit in this understanding of diversity is the importance of high levels of endemism and of biodisparity.
Endemic species are species that are unique to one region, often within one country or continent, and are found nowhere else. Many wetlands are characterized by the endemic nature of their fish fauna.
Some measure of the level of endemism should be used to distinguish sites of international importance. If at least 10% of the ichthyofauna is endemic to a wetland, or to wetlands in a natural grouping, that site should be recognized as internationally important, but the absence of endemic fishes from a site should not disqualify it if it has other qualifying characteristics.
Guidelines for the application of Criterion 4(b)
Many fishes (including shellfishes) have complex life histories, with spawning, nursery and feeding grounds widely separated and long migrations necessary between them. It is important to conserve all those areas that are essential for the completion of a fish's life cycle if the fish species or stock is to be maintained. The productive, shallow habitats offered by coastal wetlands (including coastal lagoons, estuaries, salt marshes, inshore rocky reefs and sandy slopes) are extensively used as feeding and spawning grounds and nurseries by fishes with open water adult stages. These wetlands therefore support essential ecological processes for fish stocks, even if they do not necessarily harbor large adult fish populations themselves.
Furthermore, many fishes in rivers, swamps or lakes spawn in one part of the ecosystem but spend their adult lives in inland water or in the sea. It is common for fishes in lakes to migrate up rivers to spawn, or fishes in rivers to migrate downstream to a lake or estuary, or beyond the estuary to the sea, to spawn. Many swamp fishes migrate from deeper, more permanent waters to shallow, temporarily inundated areas for spawning. Wetlands, even apparently insignificant ones in one part of a river system, may therefore be vital for the proper functioning of extensive river reaches up- or downstream of the wetland. ”
Cluster Sites and Coastal Zone Guidelines in Ramsar
The need for including the coastal zone management in Ramsar’s guidelines for states engaged in the national physical planning process was adopted by the Policy Conference on Integrated Coastal Zone Management at the Brisbane Australia 6th meeting of the Contracting Parties in 1996.
The Conference agreed that an estimated 60% of the world’s population and many development activities are concentrated along the coastal strip that extends from shoreline to less than 60 km or 37.2 miles inland. The Conference announced the interest in adopting coastal zone guidelines because of increasing population and development, which the party says, “poses immense pressure on coastal wetlands in terms of depletion of living resources, pollution loads, reclamation, land fill, and other uncoordinated development, all of which impact on biological diversity.”
In 2002, the Strategic Framework for the Implementation of the Ramsar Convention noted the importance of nominating sites that were representative of wetland networks.
“When Contracting Parties are reviewing candidate sites for listing under this Criterion (2), greatest conservation value will be achieved through the selection of a network of sites providing habitat for rare, vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species. Ideally, the sites in the network will have the following characteristics. They:
ii. support a population of a species along a migratory pathway or flyway – noting that different species have different migratory strategies with different maximum distances needed between staging areas; and/or
iii. are ecologically linked in other ways, such as through providing refuge areas to populations during adverse conditions; and/or
iv. are adjacent to or in close proximity to other wetlands included in the Ramsar List, the conservation of which enhances the viability of threatened species’ population by increasing the size of habitat that is protected.”
“The United States’ coastal and ocean resources are under increasing pressure from population growth and development. Coastal areas host over 50% of the total U.S. population within only 17% of the nation’s land area. Between 1994 and 2015, coastal population is projected to increase by 28 million people. This movement to the coast has presented difficult challenges for coastal resource managers.
The National Coastal Management Program is a federal-state partnership dedicated to comprehensive management of the nation’s coastal resources, ensuring their protection for future generations while balancing competing national economic, cultural and environmental interests.
The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 authorizes the Coastal Zone Management Program (CZMP). The Coastal Programs Division (CPD) within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (OCRM) administers the program at the federal level.
The CPD is responsible for advancing national coastal management objectives, maintaining, and strengthening state and territorial coastal management capabilities. It supports states through financial assistance, mediation, technical services and information, and participation in priority state, regional, and local forums.
The CZMP's leaves day-to-day management decisions at the state level in the 34 states and territories with federally approved coastal management programs. Currently, 95,376 national shoreline miles (99.9%) are managed by the Program.
State and federal coastal zone management efforts are guided by the CZMP's Strategic Framework, which is organized around three major themes: Sustain Coastal Communities, Sustain Coastal Ecosystems, and Improve Government Efficiency.”
The 1978 Louisiana State and Local Coastal Resources Management Act, La. RS. 49:214.21 et seq, authorized the LDNR's Coastal Management program and the development, at the parish level, of local coastal management programs (LCPs).
Once an LCP has received federal and state approval, the parish becomes the permitting authority for coastal uses of local concern. These uses are defined as those uses which directly and significantly affect coastal waters and are in need of coastal management but are not uses of state concern and which should be regulated primarily at the local level if the local government has an approved program. (RS. 49:214.25.A.2).
To date, ten coastal parishes, Calcasieu, Cameron, Lafourche, Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, St. Bernard, St. James, St. Tammany and Terrebonne have approved, active LCPs. Two more are in development, St. Charles and St. John the Baptist.
The Coastal Management Division (CMD) of the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources is charged with implementing the Louisiana Coastal Resources Program (LCRP) under authority of the State and Local Coastal Resources Management Act., as amended (Act 361, La. R.S. 49:214.21 et seq). This law seeks to protect, develop, and, where feasible, restore or enhance the resources of the state’s coastal zone. The law’s broad intent is to encourage multiple uses of resources and adequate economic growth while minimizing adverse effects of one resource use upon another without imposing undue restrictions on any user. Besides striving to balance conservation and resources, the guidelines and policies of the LCRP also help to resolve user conflicts, encourage coastal zone recreational values, and determine the future course of coastal development and conservation.
The guidelines are designed so that development in the Coastal Zone can b accomplished with the greatest benefit and the least amount of damage. The LCRP is an effort among Louisiana citizens, as well as state, federal and local advisory and regulatory agencies.
The CMD regulates development activities and manages the resources of the Coastal Zone. A Coastal Use Permit (CUP) Program has been established by the Act as part of the LCRP to help ensure the management and reasonable use of the state’s coastal wetlands. The Coastal Use Permit is the basic regulatory tool of CMD and is required for certain projects in the Coastal Zone, including but not limited to dredge and fill work, bulkhead construction, shoreline maintenance, and other development projects. The purpose of the Coastal Use Permit process is to make certain that any activity affecting the Coastal Zone is performed in accordance with guidelines established in the LCRP.
A prime concern of the CUP Program is to regulate activities that may increase the loss of wetlands and aquatic resources, as well as to reduce conflicts between coastal resource users. Submitting an application for a CUP does not imply that a CUP will be required; application is simply one step in following the Rules and Procedures for CUP’s so that the Coastal Zone will be protected.”
Example Sites and Cluster Sites
Catahoula Lake Specifics
Ramsar report for Catahoula Lake
Country: United states of America Ramsar Site No.: 523
Region: North America Wetlands International Site Reference No.: 4US010
General and Geographical site information:
Subregion: Northern America
Designation Date: 18-06-1991
Coordinates of site center (degrees): 31°30'N 092°06'W
Coordinates of site center (decimal lat long):31,50 -92,10
Total site area: 12150 hectares
Minimum elevation: 30 meters
Transboundary: no
Boundary changes: no
Number of separate units: 1
Administrative region: Louisiana and LaSalle,Rapides Information on Conservational Issues:
Management plan status:
• Implemented/ing approved site-specific plan/measures
International conservation designation:
• no other international designation besides Ramsar
National conservation designation:
• national wildlife refuge
Ramsar criteria:
• 1 2 4 5 6
Uses and Threats:
Current land use:
Within the site's surroundings/catchment:
• Forestry (unspecified)
• Grazing (unspecified)
• Agriculture (unspecified)
Within the Ramsar site:
• Research
• Recreational/sport hunting
• Recreational/sport fishing
• Habitat/nature conservation
Threats:
Within the site's surroundings/catchment:
Within the Ramsar site:
• Oil pollution
• Inappropriate management practices
• Solid waste pollution
Social and cultural values:
• Sport fishing
Land tenure/ownership:
Site's surroundings:
• Private owner(s)
Within the Ramsar site:
• National/federal Ecological Data:
Wetland Category:
• Inland wetlands
Wetland Type (dominant type in bold):
• Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; includes freshwater swamp forest, seasonally flooded forest, wooded swamps; on inorganic soils (Xf)
• Shrub-dominated wetlands; Shrub swamps, shrub-dominated freshwater marsh, shrub carr, alder thicket; on inorganic soils (W)
• Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools on inorganic soil; includes sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes (Ts)
• Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes floodplain lakes (P)
• Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes large oxbow lakes (O)
• Seasonal/intermittent/irregular rivers/streams/creeks (N)
• Permanent rivers/streams/creeks; includes waterfalls (M)
Biological Values:
Fauna type:
• waterbird wintering/non-breeding/dry season area
Flora type:
Physical Data:
Salinity:
• Fresh
Permanence:
• Usually seasonal/intermittent
• Usually permanent
Soil type:
• Predominantly mineral
Physical Data:
Permanence:
• Usually permanent
Hydrological values:
• Maintenance of water quality (removal of nutrients)
Site: Connecticut River Estuary and Tidal River Wetlands Complex Designation date: 14-10-1994
Coordinates: 41°15'N 072°18'W Elevation: Area: 6,484 ha
Location: The site intersects 12 counties within the state of Connecticut, northeastern United States. The city of Hartford is 58 linear km upstream of the river mouth.
Criteria: 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,7 ,8
Ramsar report for Connecticut River Estuary and Tidal River Wetlands Complex
Country: United states of America Ramsar Site No.: 710
Region: North America Wetlands International Site Reference No.: 4US014
General and Geographical site information:
Subregion: Northern America
Geographical position: Marine & coastal wetlands
Designation Date: 14-10-1994
Coordinates of site center (degrees): 41°15'N 072°18'W
Coordinates of site center (decimal lat long):41,25 -72,30
Total site area: 6484 hectares
Transboundary: no
Boundary changes: yes, has expanded
Number of separate units: 20
Administrative region: Connecticut Information on Conservational Issues:
Management plan status:
• Implemented/ing approved site-specific plan/measures
International conservation designation:
• no other international designation besides Ramsar
National conservation designation:
• wildlife management areas
• state parks
Ramsar criteria:
• 1 2 3 4 7 8
Uses and Threats:
Current land use:
Within the site's surroundings/catchment:
Within the Ramsar site:
• Tourism (unspecified)
• Recreation (unspecified)
• Birdwatching
• Recreational/sport hunting
• Commercial hunting
• Recreational/sport fishing
• Commercial fishing
Threats:
Within the site's surroundings/catchment:
• Introduction/invasion of exotic plant species
Within the Ramsar site:
• Sedimentation/siltation
• Introduction/invasion of exotic plant species
• Introduction/invasion of exotic animal species
Social and cultural values:
• Tourism
• Non-consumptive recreation
• Sport hunting
• Archaeological/historical site
• Sport fishing
• Aesthetic
Land tenure/ownership:
Site's surroundings:
Within the Ramsar site:
• Provincial/region/state
• Private owner(s)
• Foundation/non-governmental organization/trust
• Local authority, municipality, (sub)district, etc
Ecological Changes:
• Less significant negative changes are occurring Ecological Data:
Wetland Category:
• Inland wetlands
• Marine & coastal wetlands
Wetland Type (dominant type in bold):
• Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; includes freshwater swamp forest, seasonally flooded forest, wooded swamps; on inorganic soils (Xf)
• Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools on inorganic soil; includes sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes (Ts)
• Permanent freshwater marshes/pools; ponds (below 8 ha), marshes and swamps on inorganic soils; with emergent vegetation water-logged for at least most of the growing season (Tp)
• Seasonal/intermittent saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/ pools (Ss)
• Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/pools (Sp)
• Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes floodplain lakes (P)
• Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes large oxbow lakes (O)
• Permanent rivers/streams/creeks; includes waterfalls (M)
• Intertidal marshes; includes salt marshes, salt meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes; includes tidal brackish and freshwater marshes (H)
• Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats (G)
• Estuarine waters; permanent water of estuaries and estuarine systems of deltas (F)
• Sand, shingle or pebble shores; includes sandbars, spits and sandy islets; includes dune systems and humid dune slacks (E)
• Marine subtidal aquatic beds; includes kelp beds, sea-grass beds, tropical marine meadows (B)
Biological Values:
Fauna type:
• important for reproduction of fishes
• waterbird wintering/non-breeding/dry season area
• staging area for migratory waterbird species
• roosting area for waterbirds
• supports rare/endangered species
• breeding area for waterbirds
• important for invertebrates
• important for fishes
• the wetland provides a critical link in a major food chain
• outstanding variety of species present
Flora type:
• supports rare/endangered species
• outstanding variety of species present
• outstanding example of a particular plant community
Physical Data:
Permanence:
• Usually permanent
Hydrological values:
• Maintenance of water quality (removal of nutrients)
Ramsar report for Everglades
Country: United states of America Ramsar Site No.: 374
Region: North America Wetlands International Site Reference No.: 4US005
General and Geographical site information:
Subregion: Northern America
Geographical position: Marine & coastal wetlands
Designation Date: 04-06-1987
Coordinates of site center (degrees): 25°00'N 080°55'W
Coordinates of site center (decimal lat long):25,00 -80,92
Total site area: 566143 hectares
Minimum elevation: -10 meters
Maximum elevation: 5 meters
Transboundary: no
Boundary changes: no
Number of separate units: 1
Administrative region: Florida and Dade,Collier,Monroe Information on Conservational Issues:
Restoration status:
• Implemented/ing approved site-specific plan/measures
Management plan status:
• Implemented/ing approved site-specific plan/measures
International conservation designation:
• World Heritage Site
• Biosphere Reserve
National conservation designation:
• national park
• wilderness area
Ramsar dates:
• 16-06-1993: Date that site was officially placed on the Montreux Record
Ramsar criteria:
• no information available
Uses and Threats:
Current land use:
Within the site's surroundings/catchment:
• Urban development
• Forestry (unspecified)
• Agriculture (unspecified)
Within the Ramsar site:
• Research
• Flood control
• Recreation (unspecified)
• Recreational/sport fishing
• Commercial fishing
• Habitat/nature conservation
Threats:
Within the site's surroundings/catchment:
• Industrial waste pollution
• Fertilizer pollution
• Impact from water diversion or extraction
• Drainage/reclamation for industry
• Drainage/reclamation for urban development
• Urban development (unspecified)
Within the Ramsar site:
• Unspecified pollution
• Reservoir/barrage/dam impact: altered flow regime
• Introduction/invasion of exotic plant species
• Introduction/invasion of exotic animal species
Social and cultural values:
• Non-consumptive recreation
• Sport fishing
• Conservation education
Land tenure/ownership:
Site's surroundings:
• Public land (unspecified)
• Private owner(s)
• Commoners/customary rights
Within the Ramsar site:
• National/federal
Ecological Changes:
• Significant/substantial negative changes are occurring
• Significant negative changes occurring since designation Ecological Data:
Wetland Category:
• Inland wetlands
• Marine & coastal wetlands
Wetland Type (dominant type in bold):
• Seasonal/intermittent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes floodplain lakes (P)
• Estuarine waters; permanent water of estuaries and estuarine systems of deltas (F)
• Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats (G)
• Intertidal marshes; includes salt marshes, salt meadows, saltings, raised salt marshes; includes tidal brackish and freshwater marshes (H)
• Intertidal forested wetlands; includes mangrove swamps, nipah swamps and tidal freshwater swamp forests (I)
• Coastal brackish/saline lagoons; brackish to saline lagoons with at least one relatively narrow connection to the sea (J)
• Permanent shallow marine waters in most cases less than six meters deep at low tide; includes sea bays and straits (A)
• Permanent freshwater lakes (over 8 ha); includes large oxbow lakes (O)
• Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; includes freshwater swamp forest, seasonally flooded forest, wooded swamps; on inorganic soils (Xf)
• Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline lakes (Q)
• Seasonal/intermittent saline/brackish/alkaline lakes and flats (R
• Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/pools (Sp)
• Permanent freshwater marshes/pools; ponds (below 8 ha), marshes and swamps on inorganic soils; with emergent vegetation water-logged for at least most of the growing season (Tp)
• Seasonal/intermittent freshwater marshes/pools on inorganic soil; includes sloughs, potholes, seasonally flooded meadows, sedge marshes (Ts)
• Non-forested peatlands; includes shrub or open bogs, swamps, fens (U)
• Permanent rivers/streams/creeks; includes waterfalls (M)
Biological Values:
Fauna type:
• outstanding range of bird species
• supports rare/endangered bird species
• supports rare/endangered mammal species
• aquatic mammals present
Flora type:
Physical Data:
Salinity:
• Euhaline/Eusaline
• Mixohaline (brackish)/Mixosaline
• Fresh
Permanence:
• Usually permanent
Soil type:
• Predominantly organic
Methodology
Recommending to Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance Candidates
RIS Procedure
The RIS should be completed in accordance with the attached Explanatory Notes and Guidelines for completing the Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands. Compilers are strongly advised to read this guidance before filling in the RIS.
Once completed, the RIS (and accompanying map(s)) should be submitted to the Ramsar Bureau. Compilers are strongly urged to provide an electronic (MS Word) copy of the RIS and, where possible, digital copies of maps.
Louisiana NWR Complex Proposal-what and why
General Overview of the Area and Sites
The Southwest Louisiana National Wildlife Refuge Complex was established in March of 2000 and consisted of Sabine and Cameron Prairie National Wildlife Refuges. During April of 2004, Lacassine National Wildlife Refuge was added to the Complex. The Headquarters Office is located at Cameron Prairie National Wildlife Refuge. The employees assigned to the refuge complex are engaged in the management, protection and restoration of over 360,000 acres of wetlands habitat in Southwest Louisiana.
All three refuges are located within Cameron Parish and often receive the same visitors. The complex provides a wide variety of wildlife dependent public uses such as hunting, fishing, wildlife photography, environmental education, wildlife interpretation and observation. Sabine and Cameron Prairie refuges both lie along the Creole Nature Trail, a National Scenic byway and All American Road.
Clustering of WMA’s into a single administrative complex is longstanding practice employed by the USFWS. According to Nita Fuller, Midwest regional chief of the National Wildlife Refuge System, “The decision to consolidate is based on the common resource goals and issues facing all of these river refuges.” said Fuller. She continued, “These refuges also share many of the same contacts with the states, other federal agencies, and a host of non-government conservation groups who partner with us to conserve resources on these important rivers. The consolidation will provide a better coordinated and consistent management throughout the Upper Mississippi River System.”
However, criticism of the complex structure does exist. According to Mike Stewart, former manager of the Lacassine NWR, “the complex structure is a matter of administrative benefit only. Personnel on the ground are required to manage expansive areas of wetlands.” Current employees of the Lacassine Complex disagree. “Combining the goals of the individual refuges into unified management plan, provides continuity in our primary mission to manage the refuges for the benefit of all waterfowl. Besides, we do staff the refuges with onsite personnel who report to the complex manager. Additionally and probably more importantly, the three area National Wildlife Refuges host many of the same waterfowl, fish, shrimp and migratory bird populations and share the same watershed.”
“The Calcasieu-Sabine Basin was historically interconnected with the Mermentau Basin, but human-induced hydrologic alterations caused by navigation corridors have made the two basins more hydrologically distinct. The Sabine-Neches Ship Channel and the Calcasieu Ship Channel have been expanded incrementally to the extent that the present-day channel cross-sectional areas are more than forty times larger than when first dredged in the late 1800s. These changes have affected hydrology by three principle means: channeling saltwater into the historical low-salinity estuary; creating a channelized loss of riverine inflows when the tide ebbs; and increasing tidal amplitude.
Industrialization of the estuary started in the early 1920s with the discovery of nearby petroleum and gas reserves. The ease of access to water transportation provided a stable base of operations to support major petroleum refining and chemical operations, which produce a wide range of industrial chemicals, petroleum products, and commercial feedstocks. Over 30 major industries are located within the watershed, including corporations such as PPG, Conoco, Citgo, Equistar, and Firestone.
Calcasieu Estuary is nestled among the urban districts of Lake Charles in the southwestern corner of Louisiana, approximately 15 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico. The estuary incorporates the area of the Calcasieu River from northern Moss Lake to the saltwater barrier at Lake Charles. Many areas of the estuary, such as Moss Lake, Prien Lake, and Lake Charles, were once fresh water, are more saline due to human alterations to the hydrography. The estuary is divided into four major areas:
1. Bayou Verdine, a river channel, enters the Calcasieu River at the north end of the Coon Island Loop after winding 4.2 miles through residential and industrial areas.
2. Bayou d'Inde, a 9-mile-long, narrow, sinuous channel occupying approximately 1,486 acres, much of which is uncharacterized, back-water marsh, is located southwest of Lake Charles.
3. Upper Calcasieu River, a large, industrial ship canal approximately 15 miles long and 2,871 acres, includes Lake Charles, the upper Calcasieu River and shipping channel, and the Coon Island Loop.
4. Lower Calcasieu River, another large, industrial ship canal extending 8 miles and 3,976 acres from Coon Island to the outflow of Moss Lake, includes Lake Prien, Moss Lake, the Calcasieu Ship Canal, and the old channel of the Calcasieu River.
Bayou d'Inde Map Lower Calcasieu Map
Upper Calcasieu Map Bayou Verdine Map
At the southern terminus of the Calcasieu estuary is Calcasieu Lake, approximately 4 miles downstream of Moss Lake. The lake is a coastal lagoon system that is predominantly less than six feet deep. Originally, the Calcasieu River passed through the lake; however, when a ship channel was dredged through the lake, a spoil bank was constructed in order to separate it from the river and ship channel. While Calcasieu Lake is still connected to the Calcasieu River and the ship channel at its northern and southern ends, the river’s flow largely bypasses the lake.
Geologic History
Most of Louisiana’s subsurface strata consist of geologically young sedimentary sequences deposited by rivers flowing through the coastal plains. As rivers corresponding to today’s Mississippi drainage system flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, these sediments deposited upon banks and deltas. During glacial episodes in the Quaternary period (2 million years ago [mya]), sea level dropped and rivers began depositing sediments farther offshore. Over time, these processes slowly advanced the Louisiana coastline into the Gulf of Mexico.
Because the same processes are still at work in Louisiana, most of the surface exposures consist of Quaternary sediments. Channel deposits made up of gravel and sand; the heaviest river deposits falling out first. Farther up the banks, natural levees are composed of fine sands and muddy deposits. Backswamps and coastal marshes, the lowest energy environments, contain rich mud and organic matter.
A lesser percentage of the state’s surface geology is occupied by deposits associated with Pleistocene (2 mya) terraces. These terraces, located inland of the coastal marshes, also consist of sand, gravel, and mud. Sometimes sloping toward the gulf, these surfaces are remnants of preexisting flood plains, formed by sea level rise and fall during glacial and interglacial periods.
Coastal Prairies
As recently as 100 years ago, 2.5 million acres in southwest Louisiana consisted of vast grasslands, known as coastal prairies. These great expanses were devoid of trees, save for small clusters along streams and rivers, known as “gallery forests”. The lack of tall, woody, foliage upon the plains was attributed to the combination of heavy clay soils and frequent fire.
One unique feature that served to break up the great expanses of tall grass, as well as promote species diversity, was the presence of rounded hillocks, known as “pimple mounds”. These mounds, still existing today, range from 20 to 50 feet in diameter and 3 to 7 feet in height. They are composed of coarser, better-draining sediments than the surrounding prairie sediments. However, the geologic processes that formed these mounds remain a mystery.
Upon settlement in the mid-1800s, the coastal prairie’s rich soil content was recognized as ideal for cultivation and cattle grazing. Rice paddies and pastures quickly overtook open grasslands, and now coastal prairie is considered one of the rarest habitats in Louisiana; a paltry 1,000 acres remain out of the original 2.5 million.
Marshes
Saltwater marshes, nearest to the coast and subject to regular tidal inundation, have average salinities near 16 parts per thousand (ppt). They are typically dominated by hardy salt-tolerant plant species, such as saltgrass and smooth cordgrass. While saltwater marshes typically support fewer terrestrial vertebrates, they are still intrinsically important as marine nursery grounds and are home to a few bird species, such as seaside sparrows and clapper rails.
Freshwater marshes, typically never exceeding salinities greater than 2 ppt, are rich in plant species, with marsh-hay cordgrass, cattail, and sawgrass among the most prevalent. This marsh type sustains high densities of wildlife, including migrating waterfowl. However, due to saltwater intrusion, Louisiana freshwater marsh area has been dramatically reduced over the past few decades.
Forested Wetlands
Forested wetlands, located at the landward end of estuaries, are divided into two vegetation zones, bald cypress- tupelo swamps and bottomland hardwood forests. The soils are nutrient-rich and are high in organic matter. The almost year-round presence of standing water allows for the growth of aquatic and emergent plants. The diverse microhabitats that exist within the forested wetlands make this zone particularly species-rich. Because dry land is at premium in coastal Louisiana, forested wetlands are some of the only wooded areas that remain untouched by agriculture, industry, and urban use.
Cheniers
Cheniers are coastal ridges, exclusive to western Louisiana, that typically have higher relief than outlying barrier islands. As a result, these ridges are historically known for supporting maritime forests dominated by live oaks (chenier is French for oak). Those forests that escaped the human impacts of deforestation and agriculture play an important ecological role as a temporary habitat for many migrating species. Because cheniers are above sea level, some by as much as 3 meters, it is one of the more important continuous habitats for mammals and birds in coastal Louisiana.
Oyster Reefs
Apart from sustaining oyster communities, oyster reefs also support a diverse and complex biological community. Due to their commercial importance, oysters in the Louisiana estuaries and the surrounding environment have been extensively studied. One of the primary impacts on the oyster population is saltwater encroachment into estuaries. High salinities force the oyster populations to migrate inland into regions of increased predation and parasitism.
The Calcasieu Estuary provides important habitat for migratory waterfowl, shorebirds, and wading birds and valuable nursery and breeding habitat for numerous estuarine-dependent sport and commercial fish and shellfish. Areas of greatest concern are Coon Island Loop, Bayou Verdine, and Bayou d'Inde. The primary contaminants of concern are hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorobutadiene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxin, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), mercury, copper, and lead. Consumption advisories are currently in effect for fish and shellfish from Bayou d'Inde.
Threatened and Endangered Species
Threatened Endangered
Alabama Heelsplitter (=inflated), Potamilus inflatus
American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis (S/A)
Gopher Tortoise (west of Mobile/Tombigbee Rivers), Gopherus polyphemus
Green Sea Turtle (except where endangered), Chelonia mydas
Gulf Sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi
Loggerhead Sea Turtle, Caretta caretta
Louisiana Pearlshell, Margaritifera hembeli
Ringed Map Turtle, Graptemys oculifera Finback Whale, Balaenoptera physalus
Hawksbill Sea Turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata
Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaeangliae
Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle, Lepidochelys kempii *
Leatherback Sea Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea
Pallid Sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus albus
Pink Mucket (Pearly Mussel), Lampsilis abrupta
West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus
* Specific to the Calcasieu Estuary
Dredging and Navigation
Artificial canals significantly affect coastal wetlands. Freshwater runoff that used to flow across wetlands, depositing sediment and distributing nutrients, is now shunted through a network of drainage canals. This elaborate drainage system carries the runoff directly into lakes and bays, bypassing swamps and marshes. If runoff were to flow through the marshes, trapped sediments would beneficially minimize wetland subsidence. In addition, the runoff would be naturally filtered through the wetlands, improving the quality of the water delivered to estuarine lakes and bays.
Navigation canals that exist at the seaward edge of estuaries detrimentally affect natural estuarine flow, allowing salt water to encroach inland, converting freshwater and low-salinity marshes into high-salinity marshes. Salt-intolerant species are extirpated, leading to erosion before other species can become established.
Larger dredged channels, used for both commercial navigation and oil- and gas-well access, are significantly correlated to marsh loss rate. These channels directly connect a number of different marsh systems together and are responsible for profoundly altering water circulation. The channels are responsible for allowing saltwater encroachment, along with circulating contaminants released from wells, refineries, and vessels.
Oil Spills
Small spills occasionally happen in the Calcasieu Estuary due to fuel-loading incidents and other minor accidents. Two large spills occurred in the 1990s, a styrene monomer spill in Bayou d’Inde around 1993 and a spill of 1.8 million pounds of 1,2 dichloroethane (EDC) in 1994. Both were responded to and cleaned up under state supervision. No residual contamination was apparent in the 2000 Calcasieu Remedial Investigation sampling effort.
Invasive Species
Invasive species are non-indigenous aquatic species that enter a body of water or aquatic ecosystem outside their historic or native ranges. Most non-indigenous introductions are a direct result of human impacts; bays and estuaries are particularly vulnerable due to the abundance and variety of human activities.
Non-indigenous aquatic flora and fauna have profoundly influenced different environments of coastal Louisiana. Introduced plants, such as alligator weed and water hyacinth, choke out indigenous plants and hinder navigation and drainage. Introduced animal species, such as nutria, graze marsh plants to decimation, causing erosion and displacing native animals.
Cameron Prairie
Lacassine
“The Lacassine National Wildlife Refuge (NWR; Figure 4), completed in 1943, contains a large (16,000 acre) impoundment built to enhance waterfowl resting and nesting habitat. The input of water for the impoundment comes entirely from rainfall, and the pool is drained through three control structures into Bell City Drainage Canal and Bayou Lacassine.
Management plans state that the water is drawn down to 3.5 ft Mean Sea Level (MSL) during 15 October-15 January, when stop logs are placed to allow the pool to fill to 5 ft MSL. This enhances fishing and opens up areas of the marsh for desirable plant species.
The 15 management objectives are to have the pool provide loafing area for migratory waterfowl, while adjacent areas (some of which are planted) support feeding. The submerged aquatics within the pool and the accompanying invertebrates provide excellent food sources for diving ducks, grebes, and other species. Maidencane (Panicum hemitomon) and bulltongue (Sagittaria lancifolia) are the dominant emergent plants, but they have little food value for waterfowl. Refuge officials observe that, while waterfowl do utilize the area as a stopover, they usually leave the pool to feed.”
Sabine
Ramsar Criteria Applied to The Southwest NWR Complex
Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate bio-geographic region.
There are four types of marsh found in Louisiana: Salt, Intermediate/Brackish, and marsh. These sub-categories of marsh are detailed below as described by Mitsch and Gosselink (1987). Salt Marsh Located at and around the margins of sounds and estuaries, backs of barrier islands, and old flood tide deltas near closed inlets with regular salt water tides, salt marsh vegetation is dominated by Spartina alterniflora at the lower elevations (low marsh) typically between mean low tide and mean high tide. Zonation of vegetation occurs between mean tide and mean high tide with zones of Juncus romerianus, Spartina alterniflora, and sometimes other brackish marsh species. Salt marsh communities are highly productive due to the dynamic environment in which they are found. In this setting, organic matter is regularly removed and sediment deposited by the tides. Under optimal conditions (i.e., presence of a coarse-grain sediment source), tidal sedimentation causes a rise in the marsh surface and landward migration of the marsh. Sediment may also be deposited on the shoreline, causing estuarineward progradation of the marsh. Marshes on the backsides of barrier islands may be subject to episodic burial by sand overwash. Salt marshes are distinguished from all other community types by the dominance of Spartina alterniflora as well as by their tidal, saltwater environments. Relatively narrow zones of brackish marsh at the upper edge are considered part of the salt marsh, but larger expanses in the heads of creeks and in the interior of large marsh, islands are considered separate brackish marsh communities.
Brackish/Intermediate Marsh Found along the margins of sounds and estuaries somewhat removed from connection with the sea, so that salinity is diluted by freshwater inflow and tidal range is generally less than in salt marshes. Those marshes in areas with substantial regular lunar tides have a regular input of nutrients that makes them highly productive. In addition to high inflow of nutrients, regularly flooded marshes are typically supplied with abundant sediment and may produce tidal mud flats and estuarineward progradation of the marsh. Areas with only irregular wind tidal flooding have much less nutrient input, less mineral sedimentation, and accumulate relatively more organic matter. They lack mud flats and their estuarine edges are scarped and erosional. As sea level rises, mineral or organic sedimentation causes the marsh surface to rise, the landward edge will migrate landward, and changes in tidal inlets may cause changes in salinity. Brackish marshes are distinguished by their tidal environment and usually by the dominance of Juncus romerianus. There is a primary difference in dynamics between the regularly flooded marshes in the southern portion of the coastal zone and the predominantly irregularly flooded marshes in the northern coastal zone. Areas exposed to wave action from large estuaries may also be different in dynamics from narrow marshes in small tributaries.
Tidal Freshwater Marsh Found at the margins of estuaries, or drowned rivers and creeks, they are regularly or irregularly flooded with freshwater tides. Historically in Louisiana, this marsh type was extensive, but its range has steadily reduced since the mid-1950 due to numerous factors including subsidence, sea-level rise, salt-water intrusion, and altered hydrology because of river leveeing, oil, and gas access canals. Tidal freshwater marshes are sustained largely through tidal flooding which brings in nutrients derived from seawater and varying amounts of sediment to the community. Regularly flooded marshes are reported to have high productivity, equivalent to salt marshes at the same latitude (Odum et al. 1984). Irregularly flooded marshes and marshes in areas with little mineral sediment are assumed less productive. Tidal freshwater marsh is distinguished from adjacent swamp forest and upland forests by the lack of a dominant tree or shrub layer.
Floating or “Flotant” Marsh Contrary to the stationary marshes outlined above, flotant marshes are produced independently of external influences (autogenic processes). In interior marshes that salt does not reach or have been cut off from riverine inputs, the fullest expression of autogenic development occurs. With the substrates supply of new sediments almost entirely cut off, the cumulative vertical accretion becomes increasingly organic (as the elevation is contributed to or maintained by the build-up of organic matter). As a result, the marsh becomes increasingly light until the whole mat becomes buoyant enough to float. When that occurs the flooding regime is no longer unpredictable, but is now a stable one in which the sediment is always saturated but the surface nearly never flooded. Because the surface is nearly never flooded, the major source of nutrients – waterborne sediments – is lost. To adapt, the plants colonizing the mat have high belowground productivity (dense root system) to “wick up” nutrients from the organic saturated solution between the mat and the substrate. Species typically found on a floating mat are Eleocharis sp., Hydrocotyle sp., Panicum hemitomon, Sagitarria sp., as well as many others.
Wetland Forest (Evergreen, Deciduous, and Mixed)
Wetland forests, besides being broken into evergreen, deciduous, and mixed are segmented by their flooding frequency. Those areas that experience permanent to semi-permanent flooding are deepwater swamps while those receiving only seasonal riverine pulses are generally characterized as bottomland hardwood (BLH) forests. The distinction is not only made because of flooding regime, but the species composition that occurs as a result. In Louisiana, the cypress ( Taxodium sp.) and tupelo/gum swamps are the major deepwater-forested wetlands and are characterized by bald cypress – water tupelo communities with permanent or near permanent standing water (Mitsch and Gosselink 1987). Bottomland hardwood forests usually occur as an ecotone between aquatic and upland ecosystems but have distinct vegetation and soil characteristics. The vegetation in BLH forests is dominated by diverse trees that are adapted to the wide variety of environmental conditions on the floodplain. Typical species are black willow (Salix nigra), red maple (Acer rubrum), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia), American elm (Ulmus americana), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), to name a few.
Wetland Shrub/Scrub (Evergreen, Deciduous, and Mixed)
A scrub-shrub wetland typifies a community in transition and exemplifies the dynamic nature of wetlands in general. Many emergent wetlands, if positively accreting and left undisturbed, will gradually be replaced through succession by woody vegetation that will in time climax with the scrub-shrub phase. The scrub-shrub wetland is often found grading shoreward from an emergent wetland that borders a lake, bayou, or pond. The woody vegetation accounts for at least 30% of the vegetation present, and must be less than 20 feet (6 meters) tall. Species composition is dependent on the length of inundation, with black willow ( Salix nigra) and dogwood (Cornus sp.) growing in the temporarily to seasonally wet areas and buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) in semi-permanently flooded areas. The soils in this community typically are wet phases of alluvial soils. They may have been cropland at one time, particularly where they border large constructed reservoirs. They also may be present along the flanks of spoil disposal areas particularly spoil banks along canals dredged through marsh. Soils range in reaction from strongly acid to neutral.
Non-vegetated shorelines of Louisiana’s estuaries and coast are characterized both by the substratum type and by the organisms that live on and within the sediments (or soils). Sediment characteristics (e.g., grain size, organic content, etc.) play a large role in determining the species composition and abundance, as well as the feeding strategies of the organisms that inhabit a given area of shoreline. Estuarine beaches may be composed of organic material, although most are largely inorganic sediments. This habitat is a transition zone between the marine and estuarine aquatic habitats and upland or wetland habitats. It provides many ecological services to other resources, such as feeding and loafing areas for birds and other wildlife. Plant debris and dead organisms that form a wrack-line provide additional food sources for larger organisms, as well as habitat for smaller ones. As considered here, this resource category includes the sediments (mud, sand, etc.) and organic debris, and associated invertebrates, bacteria, and algae, and the services that this habitat provides to other resources.
Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 (16 USC 1531, et seq.) is administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). The FWS is primarily responsible for terrestrial and freshwater species and migratory birds and the NMFS for anadromous and marine fish species.
The purpose of the ESA is to conserve “the ecosystems upon which endangered and threatened species depend” and to conserve and recover listed species (Endangered Species Act [16 USC 1531, et seq.]). Endangered species are species in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Threatened species are defined as species likely to become endangered within the near future.
Section 4 of the Act provides for designations of critical habitat for listed species and includes geographic areas “on which are found those physical or biological features essential to the conservation of the species and which may require special management considerations or protection” (Endangered Species Act [16 USC 1531, et seq.]).
The published list for the State of Louisiana includes 23 animal and three plant species (U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 2003). One candidate species is listed for the state (U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 2003). Section 6 of the ESA encourages each state to develop and maintain conservation programs for resident federally listed threatened and endangered species.
The Louisiana Natural Heritage Program, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (LDWF) maintain species listed as threatened and endangered in Louisiana.
Louisiana has 28 threatened and endangered plant and animal species.
Animals – 24
Status
Listing
T(S/A) Alligator, American ( Alligator mississippiensis)
T(S/A) Bear, American black (County range of LA b.bear) ( Ursus americanus)
T Bear, Louisiana black ( Ursus americanus luteolus)
T Eagle, bald (lower 48 States) ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
T Heelsplitter, Alabama ( Potamilus inflatus)
E Manatee, West Indian ( Trichechus manatus)
E Mucket, pink ( Lampsilis abrupta)
T Pearlshell, Louisiana ( Margaritifera hembeli)
E Pelican, brown (except U.S. Atlantic coast, FL, AL) ( Pelecanus occidentalis)
T Plover, piping (except Great Lakes watershed) ( Charadrius melodus)
T Sea turtle, green (except where endangered) ( Chelonia mydas)
E Sea turtle, hawksbill ( Eretmochelys imbricata)
E Sea turtle, Kemp's ridley ( Lepidochelys kempii)
E Sea turtle, leatherback ( Dermochelys coriacea)
T Sea turtle, loggerhead ( Caretta caretta)
T Sturgeon, Gulf ( Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi)
E Sturgeon, pallid ( Scaphirhynchus albus)
E Tern, least (interior pop.) ( Sterna antillarum)
T Tortoise, gopher (W of Mobile/Tombigbee Rs.) ( Gopherus polyphemus)
T Turtle, ringed map ( Graptemys oculifera)
E Vireo, black-capped ( Vireo atricapillus)
E Whale, finback ( Balaenoptera physalus)
E Whale, humpback ( Megaptera novaeangliae)
E Woodpecker, red-cockaded ( Picoides borealis)
Plants – 4
Status
Listing
T Geocarpon minimum (No common name)
E Quillwort, Louisiana ( Isoetes louisianensis)
E Pondberry ( Lindera melissifolia)
E Chaffseed, American ( Schwalbea americana)
Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
The marshes of the Southwest Louisiana NWR Complex and surrounding region include a range of habitats utilized by both freshwater and saltwater species. These brackish waters provide essential habitat for many species of fish. Species include the red drum (redfish) (Sciaenops ocellatus), southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma), sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus), Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulates), spot (Leiostomus xanthurus), sand seatrout (Cynoscion arenarius), spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia petronus), bay anchovy (Anchoa mitchilli), catfishes (lctaluridae), sheephead minnow (Cyprinodon variegates), livebearers (Poeciliidae) killifishes (Fundulide), silversides (Membras sp.), and gobies (Gobiidae).
The deeper coastal waters offshore are habitat to many finfish common to the Gulf of Mexico. Many species congregate around the stanchions of the deepwater drilling rigs. These artificial reefs provide shelter to offshore species including the bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus), and blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus). The following fish have a greater association with the rigs themselves: red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus), spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber), and gray triggerfish (Balistes capriscus). Offshore rigs, artificial reefs, oyster reefs, breakwaters, jetties, and snapper banks provide habitat to diverse assemblages of encrusting organisms (epibenthic organisms), including hydroids and corals (Phylum Cnidaria), bryzoans (Phylum Entoprocta), sponges (Phylum Porifera), barnacles, amphipods, decapods, and other crustaceans ( Phylum Arthropoda) and fish. Those environs farthest offshore often support species of tropical origin.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
The coastal waters of the Southwest Louisiana NWR Complex comprise numerous species of estuarine-marine invertebrates including the brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus), white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus), seabob shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri), pink shrimp (Penaeus Ouorarum), and royal red shrimp (Pleoticus robustus). Brown and white shrimp, the most abundant of the shrimp species, spawn in the Gulf of Mexico. Throughout February and March, the brown shrimp larvae move into the lower estuaries, where postlarval and juvenile growth takes place. As young adults, the shrimp emigrate into deeper estuarine waters, eventually moving into the near shore Gulf of Mexico in early to mid summer. Emigration is keyed to lunar tides (Blackmon 1974). White shrimp follow a similar pattern of migration with few exceptions. Most notably, inshore development occurs in June through August with emigration into the Gulf driven by late fall/early winter cold frontal passages (Mac et al. 1998) .
Although decapod species found in coastal waters are quite diverse and prevalent, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) is the most common and important commercial crab species in the north central Gulf of Mexico. The blue crab can survive in a range of environments, from offshore marine waters to freshwater marshes. Like the shrimp, the blue crab is dependent upon the state’s estuaries for the completion of its life cycle. In late summer, egg-baring females migrate offshore to spawn. Shortly thereafter, the larvae of the blue crab adopt the inshore migration patterns of estuarine-marine fish. Mature male blue crabs remain in brackish and freshwater estuaries for the remainder of their lives; conversely, female blue crabs complete their life cycle on the continental shelf (Mac et al. 1998).
The mollusk recorded in greatest numbers within the estuaries is the brief squid (Lollinguncula brevis). Long fin (Loligo pealei) and arrow squid (Doryteuthis plei) are also common and are commercially important as bait for commercial and recreational fishing, as well as for human consumption. Louisiana’s innumerable surface freshwater hydrologic systems, brackish estuaries, and deeper coastal waters provide essential habitats and conditions for the state’s hundreds of nektonic species and together form what is considered part of one of the world’s most productive fisheries regions.
Louisiana’s coastal intertidal and subtidal zones, brackish bayous, and inlets provide essential habitat for the development of the oyster. The oyster filters seawater through tiny, hair-like structures on the gills, removing oxygen, mineral salts, and microscopic floating plants (diatoms)/other microscopic organisms. A single oyster can pump 100 gallons of water a day through its shell, thereby feeding and cleansing itself (Dugas 1982) . Of ecological significance, the processes of straining and filtration cleanse the water of the estuaries. In addition, oysters build extensive reefs or beds. Oyster reefs comprise the majority of hard substrate found in Louisiana’s coastal waters. These structures provide protection and support for both the oyster and other diverse macrofauna.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds.
During the winter months, the Lacassine and Cameron Prairie refuges support peak populations of over 300,000 ducks and geese. Large wintering concentrations of white-fronted and snow geese utilize the refuges. Pintail, blue-winged and green-winged teal, mallards, ring-necked ducks, gadwalls, and American widgeon are common on the refuges during the winter months. Breeding populations of black-bellied whistling-ducks, wood ducks, and blue-winged teal are found on the refuges during the summer months.
The most diverse and abundant land animal in Louisiana is the bird. Louisiana has no less than 411 different bird species that live in the state for part or all of the year (Lowery 1974) . These species descend from 19 orders and 66 families. The diversity and abundance of birds in Louisiana is attributed to the state’s geographic position and climate, which support numerous habitat types. Rivers, streams, bayous, lakes, ponds, coastal marshes, and tidal beaches and estuaries provide unequalled habitat for the hundreds of bird species.
Louisiana has abundant hardwood swamplands, beech-oak uplands, pine forests, and treeless grassy plains, all of which provide habitat to land birds. The single greatest factor providing such great diversity is the presence of the Mississippi River. Louisiana lies in the Mississippi and Central flyways, routes for birds migrating from the Rocky Mountain region, the Midwest, and the east. The yearly mass movement of birds to the south in the fall brings many northern nesting birds to Louisiana. Some remain all winter, while others rest before continuing on to destinations further south. The following descriptions of birds were synthesized from information contained within Lowery’s 1974 text, Louisiana Birds.
The order Ciconiiformes includes herons, bitterns, storks, and ibises. Representative species at the Southwest Louisiana NWR Complex include the following: great blue heron ( Ardea herodias), green heron (Butorides virescens), little blue heron (Egretta caerulea), cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), great egret (Casmerodius albus), snowy egret (Egretta thula), American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), wood stork (Mycteria americana), white faced ibis (Plegadis chihi), and scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber). Gulls, terns, plovers, and sandpipers, of order Charadriiformes, include the herring gull (Larus argentatus), ring billed gull (Larus delawarensis), laughing gull (Larus atricilla), common tern (Sterna hirundo), royal tern (Sterna maxima), black tern Chlidonias niger), piping plover (Charadrius melodus), whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), and American woodcock (Scolopax minor).
Order Pelecaniformes includes cormorants and pelicans. Representative species at the Southwest Louisiana NWR Complex include the brown pelican ( Pelecanus occidentalis), eastern (great) white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), and the double-crested cormorant ( Phalacrocorax auritus). The whooping crane (Grus americana) and sandhill crane (Grus canadensis) are of the order Gruiformes. The storm petrel (Oceanites gracilis) is representative of the order Procellariiformes. Ducks (dabbling, diving, merganser, tree, and stiff-tailed), geese, and swans comprise the order Anseriformes and inhabit water, rushes, cane, and other marsh vegetation. In autumn, great numbers of ducks and geese arrive in Louisiana via the Mississippi and Central flyways to winter. Representative species include the mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos), wood duck (Aix sponsa), red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator), green-winged teal (Anas crecca), American black duck (Anas rubripes), gadwall (Anas strepera), northern pintail (Anas acuta), northern shoveler (Anas clypeata), American wigeon (Anas americana), redhead (Aythya americana), canvasback (Aythya valisineria), goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis), bufflehead (Bucephala albeola), fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bicolor), Canadian goose (Branta canadensis), snow goose (Chen caerulescens)
Upland game birds of the order Galliformes found at the Southwest Louisiana NWR Complex include the bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), and the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). The prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) was last recorded in 1919. The Complex has birds of prey of the order Falconiformes. Representative species include the Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), redshouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), osprey (Pandion haliaetus), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), merlin (Falco columbarius), and the American kestrel (Falco sparverius).
Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird.
The refuge preserves a major wintering site for waterfowl in the United States. Historical wintering duck populations and geese at Lacassine are among the largest in the National Wildlife Refuge System. The sanctuary provided at Lacassine Pool is critical to the long-term viability of continental pintail populations and is one of the key pintail wintering areas in the continent, with a wintering pintail population that has reached almost 400,000 - which is 50% to 80% of the entire southwest Louisiana midwinter survey.
Table 1. Waterfowl Survey Data
Waterfowl Peak Numbers on Lacassine NWR
SPECIES 01/03/01 1/10/02 01/06/03
Mallard 34,603 16,657 15,978
Mottled Duck 259 371 414
Blue-winged Teal 0 336 2,331
Shoveler 3,048 1,009 5,356
Gadwall 4,854 4,473 4,205
Wigeon 3,256 909 1,015
Green-winged Teal 33,863 7,929 28,843
Pintail 20,845 18,326 29,867
Wood Duck 0 7 0
Ringneck 1,466 3,812 2,487
Black-Bellied Whistling Duck 1,193 1,193 0
Lesser Scaup 33 228 70
Redhead 0 0 0
Canvasback 0 0 0
Bufflehead 0 0 0
Ruddy Duck 0 0 0
Fulvous Whistling Duck 0 0 0
White-fronted Geese 7,636 1,173 3,596
Snow Geese 2,196 704 5,352
Canada Geese 0 0 0
Coots 1,372 6,667 298
Ducks/Geese Total 114,770 63,794 99,823
Puddle Ducks 100,874 50,017 88,016
Diving Ducks 2,692 5,233 2,561
Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southeast Region
Varieties of wading birds are common on the refuge, particularly during the breeding season. The first American nesting colony of cattle egrets outside of Florida was found here. One of the only roseate spoonbill nesting rookeries in Louisiana is located in Lacassine Pool, a 16,000-acre freshwater impoundment found on the refuge. Other common marsh and water birds include neotropic cormorants; anhingas; great blue, tricolored, and little blue herons; great and snowy egrets; black-crowned and yellow-crowned night herons; white and white-faced ibises; king rails; American coots; common moorhens; purple gallinules; and black-necked stilts.
“At least 5,000 to 10,000 snow geese are among the migrating and wintering waterfowl that populate Cameron Prairie National Wildlife Refuge during the fall, winter, and spring. More than 200 bird species have been recorded at the refuge including white-fronted and Canada geese, green-winged teal, ringnecked ducks, songbirds, northern bobwhite, mourning doves, and wading birds.”
Specific criteria based on fish
Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
Representative Example of Wetland Ecosystem
Endangered Species Wildlife Habitat
Threatened and endangered species that have used the refuge include bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and Louisiana black bear.
The refuges also provides suitable habitat for armadillos, swamp rabbits, fox squirrel, nutria, mink, otters, raccoons, coyotes, white-tailed deer, and a large population of American alligators. Numerous fish, frog, turtle, and snake species can also be found on the refuges.
Threats
Coastal Erosion
Because of regional differences in geology and environmental factors such as winds, tides, storm waves and storm frequency, the United States has a great variety of erosion problems (USGS, 1997)–a situation with long-term economic and social consequences. All 30 states bordering an ocean or the Great Lakes have erosion problems, and 26 are presently experiencing net loss of their shores. Storm impacts and long-term erosion are threatening developed areas with potential loss of life and billions of dollars in property damage. In addition to the natural processes that cause erosion, human alterations are affecting erosion rates. Some of the engineering solutions designed to protect certain portions of the shoreline accelerate the erosion of nearby areas by impeding beach sand supplies. Clearance of dune-stabilizing vegetation and destruction of the dunes themselves remove a substantial source of protection against high water and storm waves.
While coastal erosion affects all regions of the United States, erosion rates and potential impacts are highly localized. Average coastline recession rates of 25 feet per year are not uncommon on some barrier islands in the Southeast, and rates of 50 feet per year have occurred along the Great Lakes. Severe storms can remove even wider beaches, along with substantial dunes, in a single event. In undeveloped areas, these high recession rates are not likely to cause significant concern, but in some heavily populated locations, one or two feet of erosion may be considered catastrophic. Therefore, the impacts of erosion are not necessarily measured in terms of the highest recession rates, but may be measured against the social and economic costs to the areas affected.
Without the marsh and wetlands as a buffer, some experts predict a 20-foot storm surge that might swamp New Orleans.
Natural
“LSU researchers say that if a storm like Betsy, which hit New Orleans in 1965, hit today, the damage would be far worse than it was back then, primarily because of the extensive loss of the coast's wetlands and barrier islands to erosion and sinking. Losing those islands is like losing the state's "first line of defense" against hurricanes and tropical and winter storms, Stone said. The barrier islands protect the coastline by breaking down waves and storm surges before they hit the coast and move onshore toward the wetlands.”
There are 3 national wildlife refuges in Southwest Louisiana. They have been combined and operate under one refuge manager. In 2002, the public was notified that the refuges would be seeking input from the public as part of a new Comprehensive Management Program. This new program was aimed at establishing a management program that would best fit the needs of all people using the refuges. Public meetings were held and management laid out their plans while the public was given the opportunity to give suggestions as to how the refuges should be run in the future. Management made it clear that these refuges were established and set aside in the early 1900’s as resting areas for wintering migratory waterfowl. Most of the suggestions and concerns brought forward by the public were focused on what would be done to improve fishing in these refuges. You may not be aware, but over the past 10 to 15 years, the numbers of wintering migratory waterfowl using these refuges has been on a steady decline. With this being true, the public was asking that more attention be given to the fishing usage while still trying to provide for wintering waterfowl.
Now to backtrack just a little; in the mid 1980’s monies were set aside to stock Lacassine Wildlife Refuge with the Florida strain Black Bass. By the mid 1990’s these Florida’s had really taken off. Trophies in the 10 pound plus range were beginning to be commonplace. In 1998-1999 this area suffered a severe drought that nearly dried up Lacassine’s 16,000 acres and decimated the bass population. Since the drought, nearly a half a million Florida bass have been restocked into Lacassine. Many private citizens donated their time and money was raised to match funds by the refuge for this restocking program. This all added up to a trend that was just to the publics liking.
Now it seems like we have run up against a brick wall. In a recent newspaper article the manager of the Southwest Louisiana Refuge Complex was quoted as saying, “We want to go back to the original purpose for which the refuge was established. That impoundment was built to manage waterfowl. This should have been done three years ago, but somebody has to start sometimes. He goes on to say that “those big fish somehow survived the drought and get to the size they are now. They are anomalies. They are going to die in a couple of years. We are going to have a water level that is more conductive to benefit waterfowl, the purpose for which the refuge was established. People are going to have to make sacrifices until we work our way through this. It’s going to be tough on some people.” Written by: La. Bass Fisherman
Findings
Satisfies Ramsar Criteria
Potential to Extend to Other LA Wetlands
Clusters are Beneficial
Conclusions
Wetlands Are Vital to Earth
Productive Ecosystems for Animals, Plants and Humans
Recommendations
Complete the RIS
Begin Lobbying at State and National Level
Actual RIS for Southwest NWR Complex Completed
Extend to other
References
Appendix
Glossary
Anaerobic: living in the absence of oxygen
Aquatic: lives in or on water
Benthic: being in or on substrate, usually refers to bottom-dwelling organisms
Biodiversity: the sum of all species of plants and animals. An ecosystem is considered healthy when it supports the most diverse numbers and types of species it is capable of supporting.
Biogeochemical cycle: the transport and transformation of chemicals in an ecosystem
Bog: nutrient-poor, precipitation-fed, acidic wetland formed over an accumulation of peat with no inflow or outflow and characterized by a distinctive plant community of peat mosses, shrubs, sedges, orchids, pitcher plants, sundews and coniferous trees.
Bottomland: lowlands along streams and rivers, usually on floodplains
Buffer zone: land adjacent to a sensitive area that minimizes outside impact
Conservation easement: a legal device that allows owners to divide the set of rights that their ownership entails
Constructed, wetland: wetland specifically designed to treat both point and nonpoint sources of water pollution
Creation, wetland: conversion of an upland area into a wetland where a wetland never existed
Decomposition: the breakdown of organic or chemical matter by microbes
Delineation, wetland: determination of the boundary between wetland and upland
Detritus: dead and decomposing plant and animal material
Dredging: process of excavating materials from waters
Drop roots: roots that originate from the branches of trees and root in the surface sediments, found in mangrove trees
Ecosystem: a community of plants and animals interacting with one another and with their physical environment
Emergent: objects or organisms that are partly in water and partly exposed, such as plants that are rooted in water but whose upper parts are aerial or floating. Emergent wetland vegetation includes erect, rooted, herbaceous vegetation, such as sedges, rushes, and grasses
Endangered: any species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range
Enhancement, wetland: improvement, maintenance and management of existing wetlands to benefit a particular function or value, possibly at the expense of other wetland values
Estuary: an area where fresh water and marine water mix
Estuarine wetlands: tidal marshes that are semi-enclosed by land and have changing salinity levels due to the estuarine environment
Facultative: a plant species that has an equal possibility of occurring in wetlands and uplands; one of five categories used to determine whether vegetation is hydrophytic
Fen: peat-accumulating, groundwater-fed wetland that receives water from mineral soils, usually vegetated with mosses and sedges.
Flood duration: the amount of time a wetland is under standing water
Flood frequency: the average number of times a wetland is flooded during a particular period
Floodplain: the flat area of land adjacent to a stream; stores and dissipates floodwaters
Fringe wetland: wetland that fringes an ocean or lake and is affected by tidal action
Function, wetland: any biological, chemical or ecological process that a wetland performs, such as nutrient removal, wildlife habitat support and sediment trapping
Groundwater: water beneath the Earth’s surface
Habitat: when an area between two distinct ecosystems has the greatest biodiversity: the area or environment in which an organism lives
Herbaceous: soft-stemmed plant, not woody
Hydric soil: soil that formed under saturated, flooded or ponded conditions long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part
Hydrology: the study of the properties, distribution and effects of water on the Earth’s surface, in soils and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere
Hydrologist: a scientist who studies the properties, distribution and effects of water on the earth
Hydrologic regime: how water moves in and out of the wetland system
Hydroperiod: the seasonal level of water in a wetland, includes the frequency, timing, duration and amount of flooding
Hydrophyte: plants that grow in water or in soil too waterlogged for most plants to survive
Hypoxia: a condition of decreased oxygen levels in soil due to flooding
Invasive species: species that tend to spread:
Jurisdictional wetland: wetland regulated under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act which meet the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers definition (must exhibit all three characteristics – hydrology, hydrophytes and hydric soils)
Lacustrine wetland: occur on the edges of lakes where the water depth is less than 2 meters (6.6 feet)
Marine wetland: associated with the high energy coastline
Marsh: wetland characterized by frequent or continual flooding and herbaceous vegetation such as cattails and rushes
Mitigation: the federal requirement that if an existing wetland must be destroyed, it be replaced by either restoring or creating a wetland of similar size (often larger) either in the same watershed or adjacent to it
Mitigation bank: a wetland area that has been restored, created, enhanced or preserved and set aside to compensate for future conversions of wetlands into non-wetland areas
Native: originally living, growing or produced in a certain place; indigenous
Obligate: plant species that occur in wetlands 99 percent of the time; one of five indicator categories used to determine if vegetation at a site is hydrophitic
Organic matter: plant and animal residue in the soil in various stages of decomposition
Palustrine wetland: freshwater, shallow wetlands that are not riverine or lacustrine, such as marshes or bogs
Peat: a deposit of partially decomposed or undecomposed plant material; accumulates in places that are sufficiently wet enough to slow decomposition
Peatlands: generic term for all types of peat-accumulating wetlands such as bogs and fens
Perched: wetland systems in which soils do not allow water to pass through them
Permit: a document or certificate giving permission to do something
Persistent emergent: emergent vegetation that remains past the growing season
Playa: shallow depression similar to a prairie pothole found in the Southwest; becomes wet after a rain and is alternately wet and dry
Pocosin: type of bog found in the southeastern United States
Prairie pothole: shallow, marsh-like pond found in the Dakotas and Nebraska
Primary productivity: the production of organic plant material
Prop roots: roots that extend down from branches of trees into the ground, providing additional support, found in mangroves
Recharge: occurs when water flows or seeps from the wetland into the surrounding groundwater
Restoration, wetland: activities that seek to return a degraded wetland or a hydric soil area to a previously existing natural wetland condition
Riparian: typically occurring or growing along the banks of rivers and streams
Riverine: a freshwater system associated with a river; riverine wetlands are those that occur within the river channel and are dominated by emergent vegetation that remains only through the growing season
Saturation: condition in which all available spaces are filled with water
Standing water: water collected on the surface of the land
Stewardship: behavior that exhibits a long-term commitment and sense of personal responsibility
Sustainability: goal of a system of development that meets the basic needs of all people without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own life-sustaining needs
Swamp: wetland characterized by periodic soil saturation and dominated by trees or shrubs
Terrestrial: living on land or in the air, as opposed to aquatic (in water)
Threatened: any species likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range
Tidal marsh: salt, brackish or freshwater marsh dominated by herbaceous vegetation and subject to tidal flows
Value, wetland: benefits that specific wetland functions provide to humans, such as timber harvest flood control and sites for recreation
Vernal pool: shallow, intermittently flooded wet meadow or forest, usually covered by water during the cool season but dry for most of the summer
Water table: the depth or level below which the ground is saturated with water
Watershed: an area of land that drains to a particular body of water
Wet meadow: wetland characterized by waterlogged soil and herbaceous vegetation, generally without standing water
Wet prairie: herbaceous wetland dominated by grasses, sedges and forbs, and with waterlogged soil near the surface most of the year
Zonation: distinct bands of vegetation; common in wetlands because different areas are dominated by different species
Monday, May 23, 2005
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